Gottfried Wilhelm Ehrenstein, Sonja Pongratz
Resistance and Stability of Polymers
Preface
8
Table of Contents
10
1 Principles of Aging
26
1.1 An Introduction to Polymers
29
1.1.1 Thermoplastics
29
1.1.2 Thermoplastic Elastomers
31
1.1.3 Elastomers
31
1.1.4 Thermosets (EP Resins)
32
1.1.4.1 Epoxy Resins (EP Resins)
33
1.1.4.2 Phenolic Resins (PF Resin)
40
1.1.4.3 Unsaturaded Polyesters (UP Resins)
44
1.1.4.4 Vinyl Ester Resin (VE Resin)
48
1.2 General Remarks, Definition of Terms
51
1.2.1 Definition of Aging
51
1.2.2 Additional Concepts
53
1.3 Short and Long-Term Behavior
54
1.3.1 Softening Behavior
54
1.3.2 Aging Behavior
55
1.3.3 Chemical Aging Processes (Chemical Degradation)
56
1.3.4 Physical Aging Processes and Physical Aging
57
1.3.4.1 Physical Aging Processes
57
1.3.4.2 Physical Aging
59
1.4 Influencing Factors
60
1.4.1 Effect of Temperature
62
1.4.1.1 Accelerative Effect of Temperature
62
1.4.1.2 Chemical Degradation
64
1.4.1.3 Physical Aging Processes
70
1.4.2 Effects of Oxygen
70
1.4.2.1 Chemical Degradation
71
1.4.2.2 Physical Aging Processes - Chemo-Crystallization
76
1.4.2.3 Effects of Ozone
77
1.4.3 Influence of Water
79
1.4.3.1 Chemical Degradation (Hydrolysis)
79
1.4.3.2 Physical Aging Processes
80
1.4.3.3 Mechanical Effects of Water
80
1.4.4 Influence of Mechanical Load
81
1.4.5 Influence of Chemical and Physical Structure
83
1.4.5.1 Influence of Chemical Structure
83
1.4.5.2 Influence of Physical Structure
85
1.4.6 Influence of Production Method, Catalyst Residue, and Metallic Contaminations
89
1.4.7 Additives
90
1.4.7.1 Glass Fibers
90
1.4.7.2 Fillers
91
1.4.7.3 Pigments
91
1.4.7.4 Influence of Chemical Purity
94
1.4.7.5 Flame Retardation Using Halogen Compounds
94
1.4.8 Effect of Radiation
94
1.4.8.1 Ultraviolet Radiation
94
1.4.8.2 Ionizing Radiation
97
1.4.9 Atmospheric Effects
97
1.4.9.1 UV Light
98
1.4.9.2 Temperature
98
1.4.9.3 Humidity, Water
100
1.4.9.4 Corrosive Gases
101
1.4.9.5 Solid Contaminations
104
1.4.9.6 Material History
104
1.4.10 Influence of Chemicals
105
1.4.10.1 Chemical Media Influence, Solvolysis
106
1.4.10.2 Physical Media Influence
106
1.4.11 Biological Influences
107
1.5 Influence of Processing and Application
107
1.5.1 Aging during Processing
109
1.5.2 Aging during Service
110
1.6 Service Life Prediction
113
1.6.1 Prerequisites for Service Life Predictions
114
1.6.1.1 Determining Influencing Factors
114
1.6.1.2 Characterizing Damage Condition
114
1.6.1.3 Range of Extrapolation
114
1.6.2 Models for Service Life Prediction
115
1.6.2.1 Phenomenological Description of Aging
115
1.6.2.2 Standardized Processes
117
1.6.2.3 Models for Changes in Properties with Time
117
1.6.2.4 Arrhenius Equation
119
1.6.2.5 Time-Temperature Shift
121
1.6.3 Dimensioning to Meet a Specific Service Life
129
1.6.3.1 Reduction Factors
129
1.6.3.2 Service Life for Technical Parts Under Mainly Static Loads
142
1.6.3.3 Service Life Under Dynamic Load
150
1.6.3.4 Service Life of Pipes
163
2 Testing Methods
164
2.1 General Remarks
168
2.1.1 Methods for Testing Service Life
168
2.1.1.1 Simulation of Actual Conditions
169
2.1.1.2 Accelerated Tests
169
2.1.1.3 Equivalence of Radiant Energy Effect
170
2.1.1.4 Parallel Aging
170
2.1.2 Aging Criteria
171
2.1.3 Measurement Methods
172
2.1.3.1 Appearance and Surface Properties
173
2.1.3.2 Mechanical Properties
176
2.1.3.3 Change in Chemical (Molecular) Structure
176
2.1.3.4 Measuring the Effectiveness of Antioxidants
179
2.1.3.5 Identification of Stabilizers and Their Concentration
184
2.1.3.6 Change in Physical Structure
184
2.1.3.7 Additional Methods
186
2.2 Weathering
186
2.2.1 Selecting a Testing Method
187
2.2.2 Influencing Factors
188
2.2.2.1 Specimen Color
188
2.2.2.2 Radiation
189
2.2.2.3 Temperature
192
2.2.2.4 Moisture
192
2.2.2.5 Climates
193
2.2.2.6 Boundary Layer Climates
194
2.2.2.7 Additional Influencing Factors in Weathering
196
2.2.3 Natural Weathering
197
2.2.3.1 Outdoor Weathering
197
2.2.3.2 Irradiation in Field Tests Under Window Glass
198
2.2.3.3 Others
199
2.2.4 Artificial Weathering
199
2.2.4.1 Irradiation Sources
201
2.2.4.2 Test Specifications
206
2.2.4.3 Process Monitoring Equipment
209
2.2.5 Comparability of Outdoor Weathering and Artificial Weathering
210
2.2.6 Simulation of Acid Precipitation: ADF Test
212
2.2.7 Light Exposure and Weathering of Foam Materials
215
2.2.8 Weathering of Rubber
215
2.2.8.1 Static Ozone Chamber Test
217
2.2.8.2 Dynamic Ozone Chamber Test
217
2.3 Resistance to Ionizing Radiation
218
2.4 Thermal and Thermal Oxidative Resistance
219
2.4.1 Short-Term Temperature Influence
219
2.4.2 Long-Term Temperature Influence
219
2.4.2.1 Selecting a Test Method
220
2.4.2.2 Oven Aging
220
2.4.2.3 Oxidative Induction Time and Temperature (OIT)
225
2.4.2.4 Creep Rupture Tests
226
2.4.2.5 Thermal-Oxidative Resistance of Elastomers
226
2.5 Chemical Resistance
229
2.5.1 Definition of Chemical Resistance
229
2.5.2 Field Tests and Experience
230
2.5.3 Immersion Test
230
2.5.4 Creep Rupture Tests
233
2.5.5 Stress-Cracking Resistance
235
2.5.5.1 Stress States in Component Parts
236
2.5.5.2 Stress Cracking Resistance of Plastics under Media Contact
239
2.6 Biological Resistance
247
2.6.1 Testing Resistance to Microorganisms
247
2.6.2 Compostability of Biodegradable Plastics
248
2.6.2.1 Framing Standards for Product Requirements
249
2.6.2.2 Standards Describing Testing Procedures
255
2.6.3 Biocompatibility Tests
263
2.7 Standards, UL Cards
266
2.7.1 Standards
266
2.7.1.1 General Standards
266
2.7.1.2 Weathering
269
2.7.1.3 Ionizing Radiation
274
2.7.1.4 Thermal and Thermal Oxidative Resistance
274
2.7.1.5 Chemical Resistance
276
2.7.1.6 Biological Resistance
278
2.7.2 Plastics Recognition Yellow Cards
280
2.8 Catalogue of Requirements
282
2.8.1 Apparatus, Containers, Pipes, Tanks
282
2.8.2 Building Construction
284
2.8.3 Electrical Engineering
286
2.8.3.1 Thermal Aging in Cables
286
2.8.3.2 Stress Cracking Resistance in Cables
286
2.8.4 Automotive
287
2.8.4.1 Loads on Vehicles
288
2.8.4.2 Tests for Weathering Resistance
291
2.8.4.3 Airbag Modules
292
2.8.4.4 PUR Semi-Rigid Foam
293
2.8.4.5 Graying Test
293
2.8.4.6 Environmental Simulation Tests for Fuel-Carrying Plastics Components
293
2.8.5 Medical Technology
296
2.8.6 Rubber and Plastic Hoses
296
3 Stabilization
298
3.1 Basic Principles
301
3.1.1 Market Development
301
3.1.2 Basic Principles of Stabilization
302
3.1.3 Influencing Factors
304
3.1.3.1 Fillers
304
3.1.3.2 Noxious Gases
304
3.1.3.3 Effect of Acids
304
3.2 Antioxidants
304
3.2.1 Primary Antioxidants (H Donors and Radical Interceptors)
305
3.2.1.1 Phenolic Antioxidants
306
3.2.1.2 Lactones
307
3.2.1.3 Sterically Hindered Amines (HAS)
308
3.2.1.4 Aromatic Amines
309
3.2.1.5 Hydroxylamines
309
3.2.2 Secondary Antioxidants (Hydroperoxide Decomposers)
309
3.2.2.1 Phosphites and Phosphonites
310
3.2.2.2 Thio Stabilizers
312
3.2.3 Bifunctional Stabilizers
312
3.2.4 Stabilizer Blends
312
3.3 Thermostabilizers, PVC Stabilizers
312
3.4 Light Stabilizers
313
3.4.1 UV Absorbers
313
3.4.2 Quenchers
315
3.4.3 Radical Scavengers and Hydroperoxide Decomposers
315
3.5 Bio-Stabilizers
317
3.6 Other Stabilizers
318
3.6.1 Lubricants
318
3.6.2 Other Additives
318
3.6.3 Metal Deactivators, Complexing Agents
319
3.6.4 Hydrolysis Stabilizers
319
3.7 Stabilization of Individual Polymers
319
3.7.1 Polyolefins
319
3.7.1.1 Thermal Oxidation
319
3.7.1.2 Light Protection
320
3.7.2 Styrene Polymers
321
3.7.2.1 Thermal Oxidation
321
3.7.2.2 Light Stabilization
321
3.7.3 Polycarbonate and Blends
322
3.7.3.1 Thermal Oxidation
322
3.7.3.2 Light Protection
323
3.7.3.3 Hydrolysis Stabilizers
324
3.7.4 Polymethyl Methacrylate
324
3.7.4.1 Thermal Oxidation
324
3.7.4.2 Light Protection
324
3.7.5 Polyvinyl Chloride
325
3.7.5.1 Thermal Degradation
325
3.7.5.2 Light Protection
329
3.7.6 Polyoxymethylene
330
3.7.6.1 End Group Stabilization
330
3.7.6.2 Integration of Comonomers
330
3.7.6.3 Stabilization against Thermal-Oxidative Degradation
331
3.7.6.4 Light Protection
331
3.7.7 Thermoplastic Polyester
332
3.7.7.1 Thermal Degradation during Processing
332
3.7.7.2 Thermal Oxidation
332
3.7.7.3 Thermal Oxidation of Polyethylene Terephthalate
332
3.7.7.4 Light Protection
333
3.7.7.5 Hydrolysis
333
3.7.8 Polyamides
333
3.7.8.1 Thermal Oxidation
333
3.7.8.2 Light Protection
337
3.7.8.3 Semi-Aromatic and Aromatic Polyamides
338
3.7.9 Cellulose and its Derivatives
338
3.7.9.1 Thermal Loading and Oxidation
338
3.7.9.2 Light Protection
339
3.7.10 Polyurethanes
339
3.7.10.1 Thermal Oxidation
339
3.7.10.2 Light Protection
339
3.7.10.3 Hydrolysis
340
3.7.11 Thermoplastic Polyurethanes
340
3.7.12 Tetrafluoroethylene-Ethylene Copolymer
340
3.7.13 High-Temperature Thermoplastics
340
3.7.13.1 Polyarylate
341
3.7.13.2 Polyphenylene Ether and Blends
341
3.7.13.3 Polyphenylene Sulfide
341
3.7.14 Thermosets
343
3.7.14.1 Storage Stability Prior to Processing
344
3.7.14.2 Molding Materials: Curing
345
3.7.14.3 Molding Materials: Structural Aspects
346
3.7.14.4 Design Aspects
350
3.7.15 Elastomers
351
3.7.15.1 Thermal Oxidation
351
3.7.15.2 Light Protection
352
3.8 Stabilization of Recycled Materials
352
4 Processing
354
4.1 Processing Influencing Service Properties
357
4.1.1 Influencing Parameters
359
4.1.1.1 Processing Parameters
359
4.1.1.2 Process Steps
365
4.1.1.3 Plastics Composition
368
4.1.1.4 Influence of Metallic Contaminations
373
4.1.1.5 Influence of Catalyst Residues
373
4.1.1.6 Influence of the Atmosphere
373
4.1.2 Processing Thermoplastics
374
4.1.2.1 Manufacturing Molding Compounds
374
4.1.2.2 Extrusion
377
4.1.2.3 Injection Molding
384
4.1.2.4 Forming Processes
386
4.1.2.5 Cast Molding
386
4.2 Recycling
387
4.3 Behavior of Individual Polymers
389
4.3.1 Polyolefins
389
4.3.1.1 Influence of Manufacturing Processes and Catalysts
389
4.3.1.2 Polyethylene
391
4.3.1.3 Polypropylene
393
4.3.2 Styrene Copolymers
397
4.3.2.1 Polystyrene
397
4.3.2.2 ABS
399
4.3.3 Polycarbonate
401
4.3.4 Polymethyl Methacrylate
402
4.3.4.1 Thermal Stability of PMMA
402
4.3.5 Polyvinyl Chloride
403
4.3.6 Polyoxymethylene
405
4.3.7 Thermoplastic Polyester
407
4.3.7.1 Polybutylene Terephthalate
407
4.3.7.2 Polyethylene Terephthalate
407
4.3.8 Polyamides
409
4.3.8.1 Polyamide 6 and Polyamide 66
410
4.3.8.2 Polyamide 46
412
4.3.8.3 Polyamide 11 and 12
412
4.3.8.4 Fiber Manufacture
413
4.3.9 Fluoropolymers
413
4.3.9.1 Polytetrafluoroethylene
413
4.3.9.2 Polytrifluorochloroethylene
414
4.3.9.3 Polyvinylidene Fluoride
414
4.3.9.4 Polyvinyl Fluoride
414
4.3.10 High-Temperature Thermoplastics
414
4.3.10.1 Polyphenylene Sulfide
414
4.3.10.2 Other High-Temperature Thermoplastics
416
4.3.11 Polyurethane
416
4.3.12 Thermosets
417
4.3.12.1 Processing Thermosets
417
4.3.12.2 Curing of Thermosets
418
4.3.12.3 Influence of Fiber Reinforcement
433
4.3.12.4 Polyester Resins
444
4.3.12.5 Epoxy Resins
446
4.3.12.6 Condensation Resins
446
5 Applications
448
5.1 Material Selection Based on Service Life
460
5.2 Resistance to Atmospheric Influences
466
5.2.1 Determining Factors
466
5.2.1.1 Influence of Light: Light-Induced Degradation
466
5.2.1.2 Influence of Humidity and Moisture
470
5.2.2 Weathering Resistance in Individual Polymers
471
5.2.2.1 Polyolefins
471
5.2.2.2 Polymerized Styrenes
484
5.2.2.3 Polycarbonate and Blends
494
5.2.2.4 Polymethyl Methacrylate
504
5.2.2.5 Polyvinyl Chloride
512
5.2.2.6 Polyoxymethylene
524
5.2.2.7 Thermoplastic Polyester
528
5.2.2.8 Polyamides
531
5.2.2.9 Cellulose and Derivatives
535
5.2.2.10 Fluoropolymers
536
5.2.2.11 High-Temperature Thermoplastics
537
5.2.2.12 Thermoplastic Elastomers
541
5.2.2.13 Elastomers
544
5.2.2.14 Polyurethane
554
5.2.2.15 Thermosets
559
5.3 Resistance to Ionizing Radiation
562
5.3.1 Basic Principles
562
5.3.2 Mechanisms
567
5.3.2.1 Radiation Curing
568
5.3.2.2 Degradation
570
5.3.3 Influencing Factors
571
5.3.3.1 Influence of the Irradiation Source
571
5.3.3.2 Influence of the Dose Rate
572
5.3.3.3 Influence of Atmosphere
573
5.3.3.4 Influence of Temperature
575
5.3.3.5 Influence of Fillers
575
5.3.3.6 Influence of Stabilizers
575
5.3.4 Applying Radiation Technology to Plastics
576
5.3.4.1 Targeted Crosslinking in Plastics
576
5.3.4.2 Sterilizing Plastics
577
5.3.5 Stabilization and Sensibilization
577
5.3.5.1 Stabilization
577
5.3.5.2 Sensibilization
578
5.3.6 Resistance to Ionizing Radiation
578
5.3.7 Behavior of Individual Polymers under Ionizing Radiation
582
5.3.7.1 Polyolefins
582
5.3.7.2 Styrene Polymers
587
5.3.7.3 Polycarbonate
589
5.3.7.4 Polymethyl Methacrylate
590
5.3.7.5 Polyvinyl Chloride
591
5.3.7.6 Polyvinyl Alcohol
593
5.3.7.7 Polyoxymethylene
594
5.3.7.8 Thermoplastic Polyester
595
5.3.7.9 Polyamide
596
5.3.7.10 Cellulose and Its Derivatives
600
5.3.7.11 High-Temperature Thermoplastics
601
5.3.7.12 Thermoplastic Polyurethane
603
5.3.7.13 Elastomers
603
5.3.8 Resistance to Laser Radiation
605
5.3.9 Radiation in the Earth’s Lower Orbit
605
5.4 Thermal and Thermal-Oxidative Degradation
606
5.4.1 Continuous Operating Temperature Based on Empirical Data
606
5.4.2 Explanation of Concepts
608
5.4.2.1 Differentiating Thermal and Thermal-Oxidative Degradation
608
5.4.2.2 Annealing
610
5.4.3 Behavior of Individual Polymers
611
5.4.3.1 Polyolefins
611
5.4.3.2 Styrene Polymers
619
5.4.3.3 Polycarbonate and Blends
627
5.4.3.4 Polymethyl Methacrylate
637
5.4.3.5 Polyvinyl Chloride
640
5.4.3.6 Polyoxymethylene
641
5.4.3.7 Thermoplastic Polyester
644
5.4.3.8 Polyamide
653
5.4.3.9 Cellulose and its Derivatives
670
5.4.3.10 Fluoropolymers
671
5.4.3.11 High-Temperature Thermoplastics
673
5.4.3.12 Thermoplastic Elastomers
678
5.4.3.13 Elastomers
686
5.4.3.14 Polyurethanes
693
5.4.3.15 Thermosets
694
5.4.3.16 Siloxanes
700
5.4.4 Short-Term Peak Temperature Loads
701
5.5 Resistance to Chemical Attack
704
5.5.1 Diffusion Processes during Chemical Attack
705
5.5.1.1 Interaction and Transport Mechanisms
705
5.5.1.2 Water Absorption
707
5.5.2 Influencing Factors
708
5.5.2.1 Plastics
708
5.5.2.2 Effective Media
708
5.5.2.3 Temperature
710
5.5.2.4 Residence Time
710
5.5.2.5 Concentration
710
5.5.2.6 Material Specific Factors
710
5.5.3 Physically and Chemically Active Media
711
5.5.3.1 Physically Active Medium
712
5.5.3.2 Chemical Reactions - Chemically Active Medium
716
5.5.4 Resistance to Stress Cracking
717
5.5.5 Hydrolysis
718
5.5.6 Creep Behavior
718
5.5.6.1 Influence of Temperature
720
5.5.6.2 Influence of Ambient Conditions
721
5.5.6.3 Influence of the Medium
721
5.5.6.4 Influence of the Material
722
5.5.6.5 Influence of Processing
723
5.5.6.6 Influence of Stabilizers
723
5.5.7 Ways of Improving Chemical Resistance
726
5.5.8 Resistance of Reinforcing Fibers
727
5.5.8.1 Glass Fibers
727
5.5.8.2 Carbon Fibers
732
5.5.8.3 Aramid Fibers
733
5.5.8.4 Chemical Resistance of Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics
734
5.5.9 Behavior of Individual Polymers
739
5.5.9.1 Polyolefins
739
5.5.9.2 Styrene Polymers
752
5.5.9.3 Polycarbonate and Blends
761
5.5.9.4 Polymethyl Methacrylate
768
5.5.9.5 Polyvinyl Chloride
769
5.5.9.6 Polyoxymethylene
773
5.5.9.7 Thermoplastic Polyester
778
5.5.9.8 Polyamides
783
5.5.9.9 Cellulose and its Derivatives
804
5.5.9.10 Fluoropolymers
805
5.5.9.11 High-Temperature Thermoplastics
807
5.5.9.12 Thermoplastic Elastomers
818
5.5.9.13 Elastomers
823
5.5.9.14 Polyurethane
835
5.5.9.15 Thermosets
839
5.6 Biological Resistance and Biodegradability
858
5.6.1 Main Principles
858
5.6.1.1 Micro- and Macrobiological Damage, Biological Degradation
858
5.6.1.2 Influencing Factors
866
5.6.1.3 Protecting Plastics Against Attack by Microorganisms
871
5.6.2 Biodegradable Plastics
871
5.6.2.1 Degradable Petroleum-Based Biopolymers
873
5.6.2.2 Degradable Bio-Based Biopolymers
874
5.6.2.3 Non-Degradable Bio-Based Biopolymers
874
5.6.2.4 Blends and Copolymers from Various Groups of Raw and Manufactured Materials
874
5.6.2.5 Biodegradability and Compostability
875
5.6.2.6 Oxo-Degradability
876
5.6.3 Biocompatibility and Biomedical Applications
877
5.6.3.1 Use of Biodegradable Plastics in Medical Technology
881
5.6.3.2 Sterilization
881
5.6.3.3 Catalysts in Biological Media
884
5.6.4 Resistance of Individual Polymers to Biological Media
886
5.6.4.1 Polyethylene
886
5.6.4.2 Polypropylene
889
5.6.4.3 Styrene Polymers
891
5.6.4.4 Polyoxymethylene
891
5.6.4.5 Polyvinyl Chloride
891
5.6.4.6 Vinyl Chloride-Vinyl Acetate Copolymers
896
5.6.4.7 Polymethyl Methacrylate
896
5.6.4.8 Polyvinyl Alcohol
896
5.6.4.9 Polycarbonate
896
5.6.4.10 Cellulose and its Derivatives
896
5.6.4.11 Polyamide
898
5.6.4.12 Polyester
898
5.6.4.13 Polyurethanes and Thermoplastic Polyurethanes
906
5.6.4.14 Polyurethane Urea
907
5.6.4.15 Fluoropolymers
907
5.6.4.16 Polyether Ether Ketone
908
5.6.4.17 Polysiloxane
908
5.6.4.18 Elastomers
908
5.6.4.19 Thermosets
909
6 Mechanical Behavior of Fiber Reinforced Plastics
910
6.1 Long-Term Mechanical Behavior of Fiber Reinforced Plastics
911
6.1.1 Creep
911
6.2 Creep Strength
913
6.2.1 Description
913
6.2.2 Unidirectional Fiber Composite Profiles
915
6.2.3 Laminates
918
6.2.4 Miner’s Rule
920
6.3 Cyclic Load
923
6.4 Concept of Creep and Fatigue Life Prediction for Polymer Composites
924
6.4.1 Master Curve of CSR Strength
926
6.4.2 Master Curve of Creep Strength
927
6.4.3 Master Curve of Fatigue Strength for Zero Stress Ratio
928
6.4.4 Prediction of Fatigue Strength for Arbitrary Frequency, Stress Ratio, and Temperature
931
6.4.5 Tensile and Flexural Static Strength
933
6.4.6 Creep Strength
934
6.4.7 Fatigue Strength for Zero Stress Ratio
935
6.4.8 Fatigue Strength for Arbitrary Stress Ratio
938
Plastics, Rubbers and Their Acronyms
940
Other Abbreviations
944
A Tables of Chemical Resistance
948
A.1 Polyolefins
948
A.1.1 Resistance Factors of Polyolefin Pipes
948
A.1.2 Tables of Chemical Resistance for Polyolefins
953
A.1.3 List of Exposure Media (as Established by the German Institute for Civil Engineering, DIBt)
1029
A.1.3.1 Preliminary Remarks
1029
A.1.3.2 List of Exposure Media for Polyolefins
1030
A.2 Styrene Polymers
1043
A.2.1 Chemical Resistance of Styrene Polymers
1043
A.2.2 Media Causing Stress Cracking in Styrene Polymers
1069
A.3 Polycarbonate and Polymethyl Methacrylate
1070
A.3.1 Chemical Resistance of Polycarbonate
1070
A.3.2 Polymethyl Methacrylate
1081
A.3.2.1 Chemical Resistance
1081
A.3.2.2 Stress Cracking Resistance
1093
A.4 Thermoplastic Polyester
1094
A.5 Polyoxymethylene
1108
A.6 Polyamides
1122
A.6.1 Chemical Resistance for PA 6 and PA 66
1122
A.6.2 Chemical Resistance of Polyamide 46, 610, and 612
1141
A.6.3 Chemical Resistance for Other Polyamides
1144
A.7 Cellulose and Derivates
1158
A.8 Polyvinyl Chloride
1160
A.8.1 Resistance Factors for PVC Pipes
1160
A.8.2 Chemical Resistance of PVC
1163
A.8.3 List of Exposure Media for PVC Provided by the German Institute for Construction Technology
1213
A.9 Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS)
1219
A.10 Polyetherimide (PEI)
1223
A.11 Polyimide (PI), Polyamide Imide (PAI), Polyphenylene Ether (PPE), Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK)
1225
A.12 Polyethersulfone (PES) and Polysulfone (PSF)
1231
A.13 Fluoropolymers
1238
A.13.1 Chemical Resistance of Fluoropolymers
1238
A.13.2 Chemical Resistance of PTFE
1246
A.13.3 Chemical Resistance of PVDF
1252
A.13.4 List of Exposure Media for PVDF (Provided by DIBt)
1273
A.14 Liquid Crystalline Polymers (LCP)
1280
A.15 Polyurethanes
1287
A.15.1 Polyurethanes
1287
A.15.2 Thermoplastic Polyurethanes (TPU)
1293
A.15.2.1 Swelling Behavior of TPU in Various Solvents
1293
A.15.2.2 Chemical Resistance of TPU
1294
A.16 Elastomers
1297
A.16.1 Chemical Resistance of Materials for Tubes and Hoses
1297
A.16.2 Chemical Resistance of Elastomers
1308
A.17 Thermosets
1331
A.17.1 Chemical Resistance of Thermosets
1331
A.17.2 List of Exposure Media for Chemical Barrier Layers Provided by the DIBt
1344
A.17.2.1 Preliminary Remarks Regarding Immersion Media in Lists 40-2.1.1 to 40-2.1.3
1344
A.17.2.2 List of Exposure Media 40-20.1.1
1345
A.17.2.3 List of Exposure Media 40-20.1.2
1349
A.17.2.4 List of Exposure Media 40-20.1.3
1352
A.17.2.5 Lists of Exposure Media 40-3.2 and 40-3.4: Glass Fiber Reinforced Laminates with Thermoplastic Coating of PP and PVC-U
1360
A.18 Chemical Resistance in CAMPUS
1366
Bibliography
1368
Index
1448
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