Toshitaka Kanai, Gregory Campbell
Film Processing Advances
Foreword
8
Contents
10
Contributors
16
Preface
18
1 Extruder and Screw Design for Film Processing
20
1.1?The Extrusion Process
21
1.2?Rate Calculation
28
1.3?Gels
31
1.4?Troubleshooting Extrusion Processes
36
1.4.1?Improper Shutdown of Processing Equipment
37
1.4.2?Gel Showers in a Cast Film Process
38
1.4.3?Unmixed Gels
40
1.4.4?Carbon Specks in a Film Product
41
1.4.5?Rate Limitation Due to a Worn Screw
42
2 Kinematics, Dynamics, Crystallization, and Thermal Characteristics and Their Relationship to Physical Properties of Blown Film
46
2.1?Abstract
47
2.2?Introduction
48
2.3?Real-Time Crystallization of the Blown Film Process
49
2.4?Experiments
52
2.5?Process Data Analysis
53
2.6?SALS Image Analysis
56
2.7?Nucleation with High-Density Polyethylene
61
2.8?Experiments
62
2.9?Results
62
2.10?Temperature Measurement and Heat Transfer from the Blown Film Bubble
65
2.11?Measuring Film Emissivity and Film Thickness
67
2.12?Film Average Bulk Temperature and Surface Temperature
70
2.13?Experimental Evaluation of the Bubble Heat Transfer Coefficient
72
2.14?Results and Discussion
76
2.15?Correlating of MD and TD Properties of Blown Film
81
3 Multilayer Die Design and Film Structures
86
3.1?Background
87
3.1.1?Materials
89
3.1.2?Film Structures
90
3.1.3?Equipment Producers
91
3.2?Basic Coextrusion Film Die Types
92
3.2.1?Manufacturing Method
92
3.2.2?Cast Die Types
95
3.2.3?Blown Film Die Types
98
3.3?Interfacial Instabilities
104
3.3.1?Merging Area, Wave Type of Interfacial Instabilities, and the TNSD Sign Stability Criterion
106
3.3.1.1?The Effect of Die Design on the Wave Type of Interfacial Instabilities
112
3.3.1.2?The Role of Extensional Viscosities
113
3.3.2?Die Exit Region, Zigzag Interfacial Instabilities, and the Role of Polymer Processing Aids
115
3.3.3?Development of Interfacial Instabilities in Cast Film and Film Blowing of LDPEs
119
3.4?Flow Analysis for Flat Spiral Die
121
4 Die Flow Analysis and Mathematical Modeling of Film Blowing
130
4.1?Introduction
131
4.2?Die Flow Analysis
132
4.3?Computer-Aided Die Design
136
4.4?Modeling of Bubble Forming
138
4.5?Effect of Viscoelasticity
141
4.6?Modeling of Bubble Cooling
142
4.7?Bubble Collapsing
146
4.8?Critique on Flow Analysis and Bubble Modeling
147
4.9?Concluding Remarks
149
5 T-die Film Casting
152
5.1?Introduction
153
5.2?Film Casting Process
154
5.3?Theoretical Analysis of Film Deformation under a Steady State
154
5.4?Deformation Behavior of T-die Casting
156
5.5?Draw Resonance
160
5.6?Film Breakage
162
5.7?Necking Phenomenon
163
5.8?Surface Roughness Caused by Shark Skin and Melt Fracture
166
5.9?Film Physical Properties
170
5.9.1 Influence of Process Conditions
170
5.9.2 Influence of Polymer Design
171
5.9.2.1 Branching and Properties of LLDPE
172
5.9.2.2 Impact Strength
172
5.9.2.3 Heat Seal Temperature
174
5.9.2.4 Blocking and Slippage
175
5.9.2.5 Transparency
176
5.9.2.6 Summary of Film Physical Properties
176
5.10? Bleeding of Additives in a Polypropylene Film
177
6 An Overview of Molten Polymer Drawing Instabilities
182
6.1?Introduction
183
6.2?Experiments
184
6.3?Modeling Strategy: Constant Width Cast Film Process
190
6.4?Cast Film Process
193
6.4.1?Influence of Cooling
193
6.4.2 Influence of the Neck-In Phenomenon
194
6.4.3?Validity of the Membrane Model: 2-D Transverse Simulation
196
6.4.4 Influence of Rheology
199
6.5?Fiber Spinning
201
6.6?Film Blowing
202
6.7?Conclusions
206
7 Biaxial Oriented Film Technology
212
7.1?Introduction
213
7.2?Biaxial Oriented Film Lines
215
7.2.1?Sequential Film Lines
215
7.2.1.1?Extrusion
217
7.2.1.2?Casting Machine
220
7.2.1.3?Machine Direction Orienter (MDO)
222
7.2.1.4?Transverse Direction Orienter (TDO)
224
7.2.1.5?Pull Roll Stand
227
7.2.1.6?Winder
228
7.2.2?Simultaneous Stretching Lines
230
7.3?Process Control
236
7.4?Development Environment for Biaxial Oriented Films
241
7.5?Market for Biaxial Oriented Films
244
8 Biaxially Oriented Tentering Film
250
8.1?Introduction
251
8.2?Tentering Process
251
8.3?Biaxially Oriented Tentering Machine
253
8.4?Theoretical and Experimental Analyses and Polymer Design for Biaxially Oriented Film
257
8.4.1?Cooling Process Analysis
258
8.4.2?Stretching Process Analysis
260
8.5?Visualization of Stretching Process
272
8.6?Film Physical Properties of Biaxially Oriented Film
276
8.7?Surface Roughness Control of Stretched Film
279
9 Structure Development in Uniaxial and Biaxial Film Stretching
282
9.1?Introduction
283
9.2?Equipment for In Situ Measurement of Optical Retardation
284
9.3?In Situ Measurement during Batch-Type Film Stretching Experiments
286
9.3.1?Variation of In-Plane Birefringence during Uniaxial Stretching and Relaxation Processes
286
9.3.2?Three-Dimensional Analysis of Birefringence Development in?Film Stretching
287
9.3.2.1?Uniaxial Elongation
287
9.3.2.2?Planar Elongation
288
9.3.2.3?Simultaneous Biaxial Elongation
289
9.3.3?Stress versus Birefringence Behavior
290
9.4?Analysis of Sequential Biaxial Elongation
292
9.4.1?Theoretical Prediction for Sequential Biaxial Elongation
292
9.4.2? Off-Line Analysis of Film Samples from the Sequential Biaxial?Stretching Process
294
9.4.2.1?Birefringence
294
9.4.2.2?WAXD Analysis
297
9.5? Intrinsic Birefringence for Various Orientation Modes
300
9.6?Concluding Remarks
301
10 Double Bubble Tubular Film Extrusion
304
10.1?Introduction
305
10.2?Double Bubble Tubular Machine
306
10.3?Theoretical Analysis of Double Bubble Tubular Film Process
306
10.3.1?Theoretical Analysis of Preheating Process and Stretching Process
306
10.3.2?Analysis of Stretching Stress
310
10.4?Bubble Deformation Behavior [16]
311
10.5?Film Properties
314
10.6?Comparison of Double Bubble Tubular Film (DBTF) and Laboratory Tenter Stretched Film (LTSF) [17]
315
10.6.1?Bubble Deformation Behavior and Stretching Stress
315
10.6.2?Comparison of LLDPE Film Properties of DBTF and LTSF
318
10.7?Material Design of Polyolefin for Double Bubble Tubular Film
320
10.7.1?Polyethylene [18]
321
10.7.2?Polypropylene [19]
323
10.8?Thickness Uniformity
324
10.9?High Performance Film Produced by Blend and Multilayer Stretching Process
326
10.10?Scale-Up Rule
327
10.11?Three Different Stretching Processes
330
10.12?Conclusions
330
11 Double Bubble Tubular Film Process and Its Application
334
11.1?Introduction
335
11.2?Physical Properties of Biaxial Oriented PA6 Film for Simultaneous Stretching and Sequential Processing
337
11.2.1?Stretching Process (Three Technical Methods)
337
11.2.2?Film Physical Properties
339
11.2.2.1?Impact Strength
339
11.2.2.2?Tensile Properties
340
11.2.2.3?Shrinkage Properties in Hot Water (Shrinkage Patterns)
341
11.2.2.4?Stress-Strain Curve Pattern
342
11.2.3?Wide-Angle X-ray Diffraction Pattern
345
11.2.4?Polarized Fluorescence
346
11.3?Easy-Tear Film of Biaxial Oriented PA6/MXD6 Blend by Double Bubble Tubular Film Process
347
11.3.1?Equipment and Materials
347
11.3.2?Blend Ratio (Dry Blending)
349
11.3.2.1?Stretchability
349
11.3.2.2?Physical Properties
350
11.3.2.3?Easy-Tearing Properties
352
11.3.2.4?Observation with TEM
355
11.3.2.5?Observation with SALS
357
11.3.2.6?Mechanism of Developed Property
358
11.3.2.7?Thickness Uniformity
358
11.3.3?Kneading Conditions (Premixing)
359
11.3.3.1?Stretchability (Melting Point of MXD6)
359
11.3.3.2?Physical Properties
361
11.3.3.3?Structure Analysis
362
11.4?Summary
363
12 Highly Transparent Polypropylene Sheets
368
12.1?Introduction
369
12.2?Influence of Screw Geometry on External Haze of Melted Web
370
12.2.1?Preliminary Extrusion Tests Using Typical and Simple Geometry Screw
370
12.2.2?Optimization of Screw Geometry
373
12.3?Influence of Shear Stress in Die on Internal Haze
374
12.4?Analysis of Contributing Factors to Production of Highly Transparent PP Extrusion Sheets
378
12.4.1?Influence of Isotacticity on Transparency
379
12.4.2?Influence of Molecular Weight Distribution on Transparency
384
12.4.3?Influence of Addition of Metallocene Linear Low Density Polyethylene on Transparency
385
12.5?Conclusion
387
Author Index
390
Subject Index
396
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