Plastics Manufacturing Systems Engineering

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Table of Contents

Preface

1 Background

1.1 Plastics Industry Review

1.1.1 Manufacturing Productivity

1.1.2 Manufacturing Cost Breakdown

1.1.3 Characteristics of Productive Plastics Manufacturers

1.2 Manufacturing and Strategic Planning

1.2.1 Manufacturing Planning

1.2.2 Manufacturing System Design

1.2.3 Strategic Planning

1.3 Engineering Economics

1.3.1 Payback Period

1.3.2 Net Present Value

1.3.3 Internal Rate of Return

1.4 Summary

2 Plastics Manufacturing Systems

2.1 Overview of Plastics Processing

2.1.1 Extrusion

2.1.2 Blow Molding

2.1.3 Injection Molding

2.1.4 Thermoforming

2.2 Characteristics

2.2.1 Closed Loop Control

2.2.2 Open Loop Control

2.2.3 Dynamic Control

2.2.4 Control Modes

2.2.5 Control Architectures

2.2.6 Automatic Control

2.3 Performance Measurement

2.3.1 Dynamic Response

2.3.2 Repeatability

2.3.3 Productivity

2.4 Summary

3 Heating and Cooling

3.1 Specifications

3.1.1 Power Output

3.1.2 Actuator Efficiency

3.1.3 Linearity

3.1.4 Consistency

3.1.5 Failure Rate and Mode

3.1.6 Cost

3.1.7 Operating Requirements

3.2 Heating

3.2.1 Conduction Heaters

3.2.2 Radiant Heaters

3.2.3 Heater Controls

3.3 Cooling

3.3.1 Coolants

3.3.2 Coolant Temperature Controllers

3.4 Transient Analysis

3.4.1 Lumped Thermal Capacitance

3.4.2 Finite Thickness Model

3.5 Summary

4 Hydraulics and Pneumatics

4.1 Specifications

4.2 Pumps and Compressors

4.2.1 Gear Pump

4.2.2 Vane Pump

4.2.3 Piston Pump

4.3 Fluid Conditioning

4.3.1 Filters

4.3.2 Heat Exchangers

4.3.3 Accumulators

4.3.4 Relief Valves

4.3.5 Pressure Regulators

4.4 Actuators

4.4.1 Cylinders

4.4.2 Motors

4.5 Control Valves

4.5.1 Directional Valves

4.5.2 Metering Valves

4.6 Dynamic Analysis

4.6.1 Valve Dynamics

4.6.2 Fluid Dynamics

4.6.3 Machine Dynamics

4.7 Summary

5 Electric Drives

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Electromagnetism

5.1.2 Electromotive Forces

5.1.3 Common Motor Types

5.1.4 Typical Specifications

5.2 Linear Solenoids

5.3 DC Motors

5.3.1 DC Brushed Motors

5.3.2 DC Brushless Motor

5.3.3 Analysis

5.3.4 DC Motor Controls

5.4 AC Induction Motors

5.4.1 Design

5.4.2 Analysis

5.4.3 Behavior

5.4.4 AC Motor Controls

5.5 Other Motors

5.5.1 Stepper Motors

5.5.2 Linear Motors

5.6 Motor Specification Guidelines

5.7 Summary

6 Process Sensors

6.1 Specifications

6.1.1 Sensitivity, Responsivity, and Resolution

6.1.2 Response Time

6.1.3 Precision and Accuracy

6.1.4 Linearity and Hysteresis

6.1.5 Range

6.1.6 Life Expectancy

6.1.7 Size

6.1.8 Calibration

6.2 Temperature Sensors

6.2.1 Thermocouples

6.2.2 Resistance Temperature Detectors

6.2.3 Infrared Pyrometers

6.3 Force and Pressure Sensors

6.3.1 Strain Gages

6.3.2 Load Cells

6.3.3 Pressure Transducers

6.4 Displacement Sensors

6.4.1 Resistive Sensors

6.4.2 Inductance Sensors

6.4.3 Magnetostrictive Sensors

6.4.4 Optical Encoders

6.4.5 Laser Interferometers

6.5 Summary

7 Signal Conditioning

7.1 Conversion

7.1.1 Resistance to Voltage

7.1.2 Bridge Circuits

7.1.3 Current to Voltage

7.2 Amplification

7.2.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.2.2 Unity Amplifier

7.2.3 Gain Adjustment

7.2.4 Bias Adjustment

7.3 Filtering

7.3.1 Passive Filters

7.3.2 Active Filters

7.4 Signal Conditioning in Software

7.4.1 Calibration

7.4.2 Software Filters

7.4.3 Linearization

7.5 Summary

8 Data Acquisition Systems

8.1 Overview

8.2 Analog to Digital Conversion

8.2.1 Resolution

8.2.2 Range

8.2.3 Sampling Frequency

8.2.4 Bandwidth

8.2.5 Buffer Size

8.2.6 Single-Ended and Differential Signaling

8.2.7 Input Impedance

8.2.8 Slew Rate

8.2.9 Thermocouple Input Modules

8.3 Analog Output Modules

8.4 Digital Input/Output Modules

8.5 Summary

9 Machine Controllers

9.1 System Architectures

9.1.1 PLC/PAC Controllers

9.1.2 PC/PLC Controllers

9.1.3 Virtual Controllers

9.1.4 Distributed/Embedded Microcontrollers

9.1.5 Summary

9.2 Implementation

9.2.1 Control Architecture

9.2.2 Control Cabinet

9.2.3 Auxiliary Modules

9.2.4 System Operation

9.3 Summary

10 Process Control

10.1 Open Loop Control

10.2 Thermostat Control

10.3 PID Control

10.3.1 Proportional Control

10.3.2 Integral Control

10.3.3 Proportional-Integral (PI) Control

10.3.4 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control

10.4 Common Issues

10.4.1 Saturation

10.4.2 Electrical Noise

10.4.3 Filters

10.4.4 Delays

10.5 Additional Topics

10.5.1 Tuning Methodology

10.5.2 Analog Implementation

10.6 Summary

11 Process Characterization

11.1 Statistical Characterization

11.1.1 Mean and Range

11.1.2 Standard Deviation

11.1.3 Coefficient of Variation

11.2 Design of Experiments

11.2.1 Full and Fractional Factorial Designs

11.2.2 Advanced Designs

11.3 Best Practices in Experimentation

11.3.1 Center-Points

11.3.2 Population Size

11.3.3 Characterization Range

11.3.4 Grouping and Randomization

11.3.5 Stabilization

11.4 Regression

11.4.1 Linear Least Squares

11.4.2 Outlier Analysis

11.4.3 Correlation Coefficient

11.4.4 Confidence Intervals

11.5 Summary

12 Process Optimization

12.1 Process Capability Assessment

12.1.1 Yield Estimates

12.1.2 Process Capability Indices, CP and CPK

12.1.3 Six Sigma

12.2 Process Feasibility Analysis

12.2.1 Monte Carlo Analysis

12.2.2 Constraint Based Reasoning

12.3 Process Optimization

12.3.1 Robustness and Yield

12.3.2 Cost Minimization

12.3.3 Pareto Optimality

12.4 Uncertainty

12.5 Summary

13 Quality Control

13.1 Gage Repeatability & Reproducibility

13.2 Acceptance Sampling

13.3 On-Line Metrology

13.3.1 Rheometry

13.3.2 Dimensional Metrology

13.3.3 Machine Vision

13.3.4 Weight

13.4 Statistical Process Control

13.4.1 Implementation

13.4.2 SPC Heuristics

13.4.3 Multivariate Statistical Process Control

13.5 Summary

14 Automation

14.1 Introduction to Automation

14.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

14.1.2 Plastics Factory Automation Systems

14.2 Raw Materials Handling

14.2.1 Loading

14.2.2 Drying

14.2.3 Gravimetric Blending

14.2.4 Granulation

14.3 Robotics

14.3.1 Sprue Pickers

14.3.2 Traversing Robots

14.3.3 SCARA Robot

14.3.4 Fully Articulated Robots

14.3.5 End of Arm Tooling

14.4 Finished Goods Handling

14.4.1 Conveyors

14.4.2 Part Sorters

14.4.3 Pallet Loader

14.4.4 Automated Guided Vehicle

14.5 Integrated Systems

14.5.1 Strategy

14.5.2 Examples

14.6 Summary

Appendix A: Statistical Labor Data

A.1 United States Labor Rates

A.2 International Labor Rates

A.3 Trends in International Manufacturing Costs

Appendix B: Material Properties

Appendix C: Unit Conversions

C.1 Length Conversions

C.2 Mass/Force Conversions

C.3 Pressure Conversions

C.4 Flow Rate Conversions

C.5 Viscosity Conversions

C.6 Power Conversions

C.7 Energy Conversions

Appendix D: Matlab Primer

D.1 Usage

D.2 Sample Program

D.3 Other Functions/Operators

Bibliography

Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y