Joining of Plastics

Dedication

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Contents

Introduction

1 Rapid Guidelinesfor Joining of Plastics and Efficient Use of This Handbook

1.1 Efficient Use of ThisHandbook

1.2 Rapid Guidelines for Assembly of Plastics

1.2.1 Adhesives (Chapter7)

1.2.1.1 Liquids: Solvent-Based, Water-Based, and Anaerobic Adhesives

1.2.1.2 Mastics

1.2.1.3 Hot Melts

1.2.1.4 Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives

1.2.2 Fasteners and Inserts (Chapter8)

1.2.3 Hinges (Chapter 9)

1.2.4 Hot Plate/Hot Die/Fusion and Hot Wire/Resistance Welding (Chapter10)

1.2.5 Hot Gas Welding (Chapter11)

1.2.6 Induction Welding (Chapter12)

1.2.7 Insert Molding (Chapter13)

1.2.8 Multipart Molding (Chapter 13)

1.2.9 Press Fits/Force Fits/Interference Fits/Shrink Fits (Chapter14)

1.2.10 Solvent Joining (Chapter7)

1.2.11 Snap Fits (Chapter15)

1.2.12 Spin Welding (Chapter16)

1.2.13 Staking/Swaging/Peening/ColdHeading/Cold Forming (Chapter17)

1.2.14 Threads–Molded in (Chapter18)

1.2.15 Threads–Tapped (Chapter18)

1.2.16 Ultrasonic Welding (Chapter19)

1.2.17 Vibration Welding (Chapter20)

1.2.18 Welding with Lasers (Chapter21)

1.3 Assembly Methods Selection by Size

1.4 Assembly Methods Selection by Joining Time

2 Designing for Efficient Assembly

2.1 Avoiding Part Distortion

2.2 Inside Corner Stress

2.3 Ribsand Bosses

2.4 Draft

2.5 Shrinkage

2.6 Fitments

2.6.1 Drawing Conventionsfor Plastic Assembly

2.6.2 Importance of Tolerancingfor Assembly

2.6.3 Special Drafting Practices for Plastics

2.6.4 Procedurefor Establishing Tolerances

2.7 Design Practices for Looser Tolerances in Plastics

2.7.1 Three-Point Location

2.7.2 Hollow Bosses

2.7.3 Crush Ribs

2.7.4 Flexible Ribs

2.7.5 Inside/Outside Fitments

2.7.6 Step Fitments

2.8 More Relaxed Tolerances for Large Parts

2.8.1 Drillin Place

2.8.2 Oversize Hole with Washer

2.8.3 Criss Cross Slots

2.8.4 Separation of Functions

2.8.5 Corner Clearance

2.9 Semidovetail Joint

2.10 Minimizing the Effect of Misalignment on Appearance

2.11 The Plastic Product Design for Assembly Checklist

2.12 Testing

3 Cost Reduction In Assembly

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Micro Approach to Part Reduction

3.2.1 Combining Parts Through Materials

3.2.2 Combining Parts Through Processes

3.3 The Macro Approach to Part Reduction

3.3.1 Multiple Material Processing

3.3.2 Coextrusion

3.3.3 Coinjection Molding

3.3.4 Multipart or Two-Color Injection Molding

3.4 Elimination of Fasteners

3.4.1 Multiple Parts per Fastener

3.4.2 Press and Snap Fits

3.4.3 Integral Hinges

3.4.4 Combining Fastener Elimination Concepts

3.5 Holistic Design

3.5.1 The Overall Design Considerations

3.5.2 The Thread Design

3.5.3 The Processing Considerations

3.5.4 The Tooling Considerations

3.5.5 Execution

3.5.6 Toward Holistic Design

4 Design for Disassembly and Recycling

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Design for Disassembly

4.2.1 Reopenable Assemblies

4.2.2 Permanent Assemblies

4.3 Design for Recycling

4.3.1 Simplification

4.3.2 Assembly Method Selection

4.3.2.1 Reopenable Methods

4.3.2.2 Permanent Methods

4.3.3 Material Selection

4.3.4 Additives

4.3.5 Contaminants

4.3.6 Material Reduction

4.3.7 Identification and Disassembly Instructions

5 Assembly Method Selection by Material

5.1 Thermoplastics Versus Thermosets

5.2 Amorphous Versus Semicrystalline Thermoplastics

5.2.1 Postmolding Shrinkage

5.2.2 Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion

5.2.3 Weldability

5.2.4 Solvent Sealability

5.3 Thermosets

5.4 Assembly Method by Material

5.4.1 Properties and Assembly-Related Data for Selected Materials

5.4.2 Adhesives

5.4.3 Using the SPI Tables

5.5 Material Databases

5.6 Material Suppliers

6 Assembly Method Selection by Process

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Blow Molding

6.2.1 The Process

6.2.2 Assembly Considerations

6.3 Casting, Potting, Encapsulation, and Embedment

6.3.1 The Processes

6.3.2 Assembly Considerations

6.4 Coextrusion

6.5 Co-Injection Molding

6.6 Cold Press Molding

6.6.1 The Process

6.6.2 Assembly Considerations

6.7 Compression Molding

6.7.1 The Process

6.7.2 BMC: Bulk Molding Compound

6.7.3 SMC: Sheet Molding Compound

6.7.4 Assembly Considerations

6.8 Extrusion

6.8.1 The Process

6.8.2 Coextrusion

6.8.3 Assembly Considerations

6.9 Filament Winding

6.9.1 The Process

6.9.2 Assembly Considerations

6.10 Gas-Assisted Injection Molding

6.11 Gas Counter Pressure Structural Foam Molding

6.12 Injection Molding

6.12.1The Process

6.12.2 Assembly Considerations

6.13 Lay-up and Spray-up

6.13.1 The Processes

6.13.2 Assembly Considerations

6.14 Machining

6.14.1 The Process

6.14.2 Thermoplastics

6.14.3 Thermosets

6.14.4 Assembly Considerations

6.15 Pultrusion

6.15.1The Process

6.15.2 Assembly Considerations

6.16 Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)

6.16.1 The Process

6.16.2 Assembly Considerations

6.17 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)

6.17.1 The Process

6.17.2 Assembly Considerations

6.18 Rotational Molding

6.18.1 The Process

6.18.2 Assembly Considerations

6.19 Structural Foam Molding, Gas Counterpressure Structural Foam Molding, and Coinjection Molding

6.19.1 The Processes

6.19.2 Assembly Considerations

6.20 Thermoforming

6.20.1 The Processes

6.20.2 Thin-Gauge Thermoforming

6.20.3 Heavy-Gauge Thermoforming

6.20.4 Pressure Thermoforming

6.20.5 Other Forming Processes

6.20.6 Assembly Considerations

6.21 Twin-Sheet Thermoforming

6.21.1 The Process

6.21.2 Assembly Considerations

6.22 Transfer Molding

6.22.1 The Process

6.22.2 Assembly Considerations

6.23 Process Selection

6.23.1 Thermoplastic Open Shapes

6.23.2 Thermoset Open Shapes

6.23.3 Hollow Parts

6.23.4 Profiles

6.23.5 Ultra High Strength

7 Adhesive and Solven tJoining

7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

7.1.1 Advantages

7.1.2 Disadvantages

7.2 Basic Theory and Terminology

7.3 Methods for Measuring the Wettability of a Plastic Surface

7.3.1 Contact Angle Test

7.3.2 Wetting Tension Test (ASTMD-2578-73, Wetting Tension of Polyethylene and Polypropylene Films)

7.3.3 Adhesion Ratio Test (Tentative ASTM D-2141-63R)

7.3.4 Water Spreading Test

7.3.5 Dye Stain Test

7.3.6 Ink Retention Test

7.4 Surface Treatments

7.4.1 Solvent Cleaning

7.4.1.1 Solvent Immersion

7.4.1.2 Solvent Wiping

7.4.1.3 Solvent Spray

7.4.1.4 Vapor Degreasing

7.4.1.5 Ultrasonic Vapor Degreasing

7.4.1.6 Ultrasonic Cleaning with Liquid Rinse

7.4.2 Abrasive Methods

7.4.2.1 Dry Abrasion

7.4.2.2 Dry Abrasive Blast

7.4.2.3 Wet Abrasive Blast

7.4.2.4 Wet Abrasive Scour

7.4.2.5 Detergent Scrub

7.4.3 Surface Energy Treatments and Process Selection Factors

7.4.3.1 Chemical Treatment

7.4.3.2 Corona Treatment

7.4.3.3 Plasma Treatment

7.4.3.4 Flame Treatment

7.4.3.5 Process Selection Factors

7.4.4 Shelf Life of Surface Treatments

7.5 Design for Adhesion

7.5.1 Shear Stress

7.5.2 TensileStress

7.5.3 Cleavage

7.5.4 Peel

7.5.5 Adhesive Joint Designs

7.5.5.1 Load-Bearing or Non-Load-Bearing Joints

7.5.5.2 Lap Joints

7.5.5.3 Butt Joints

7.5.5.4 Screw and Glue

7.6 Adhesives

7.6.1 Acrylics

7.6.2 Anaerobics

7.6.3 Cyanoacrylates

7.6.4 Epoxies

7.6.5 Hot Melts

7.6.6 Phenolics

7.6.7 Polyurethanes

7.6.8 Polysulfides

7.6.9 Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives

7.6.10 Silicones

7.6.11 Solvent-Based Adhesives

7.6.12 Water-Based Adhesives

7.7 Solvents

7.8 Adhesive and Solvent Assembly Techniques

7.8.1 Fixturing

7.8.2 Clamping

7.8.3Application Methods

7.8.3.1CapillaryMethod

7.8.3.2Dip or Soak Method

7.9 Adhesive and Solvent System Selection

7.10 Glossary

7.11 Sources

8 Fasteners and Inserts

8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

8.1.1Advantages of Using Fasteners

8.1.2 Disadvantages of Using Fasteners

8.2 Basic Design Considerations for Fasteners

8.2.1 Creep Effects

8.2.2 Stress Relaxation Effects

8.2.3 Notch Sensitivity

8.2.4 Craze Resistance

8.2.5 Stiffness Considerations

8.2.6 Differentials in the Coefficients of Linear Thermal Expansion

8.2.7Loss of Properties Due to Moisture

8.2.8 Clamp Load

8.2.8.1 Strain Method

8.2.8.2 Torque Method

8.2.9 Vibration Resistance

8.3 Methods of Using Fasteners with Plastics

8.3.1 Press-in Fasteners

8.3.2 Self-Tapping Screws

8.3.2.1Strength of PlasticThreads

8.3.2.2Thread-Forming andThread-CuttingScrews

8.3.3 Special Screwsfor Plastics

8.3.3.1NarrowThread Forms

8.3.3.2AlternatingThreadHeights

8.3.3.3Asymmetrical Thread Forms

8.4 Selection of Self-Tapping Screws

8.4.1 Cost Criteria

8.4.2 Fail/Drive Ratio and Differential

8.4.3 Strength Criteria

8.4.4 Thread Cutting or Thread Forming

8.4.5 Tapped or Molded-in Threads

8.5 Threaded Inserts: Advantages

8.6 Boss Cap

8.7 Helical Coil Inserts

8.8 Self-Tapping Inserts

8.9 Press-in Inserts

8.10 Glue-in Inserts

8.11 Expansion Inserts

8.12 Molded-in Inserts

8.13 Ultrasonic Inserts

8.14 Heat-Installed Inserts

8.15 Induction Inserts

8.16 Hermetic Seals

8.17 Studs

8.18 Insert Design Considerations

8.19 Uor J-Clips

8.20 Tee Nuts

8.21 Machine Screws

8.22 Tapping and Stud Plates

8.23 Plastic Screws

8.24 Screw Heads and Washers

8.25 Boss Designs

8.25.1Design Criteria

8.25.2BossSinks

8.25.2.1 Coring

8.25.2.2 Location

8.25.2.3 Support

8.25.2.4 Material

8.25.2.5 Surface Treatment

8.25.3Weld Lines

8.26 Self-Threading Nuts

8.27 Twist Nuts

8.28 Press-on Nuts

8.29 Spring Clips

8.30 Push-in Fasteners

8.31 Rivets

8.32 Sources

8.32.1 Fasteners and Inserts

8.32.2 Threaded-Insert

8.32.3 Thermal Insertion Equipment

8.32.4 Induction Insertion Equipment

8.33.5 Ultrasonic Insertion Equipment

9 Hinges

9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

9.1.1 Advantages

9.1.2 Disadvantages

9.2 One-Piece Integral Hinges

9.2.1 The Living Hinge

9.2.1.1Living HingeDesign

9.2.1.2Living HingeMolding Considerations

9.2.1.3Living Hinges by Other Processes

9.2.2 The Mira Spring Hinge

9.2.3 Standard Hinges

9.2.4 Tab Hinges

9.3 Two-Piece Plastic Hinges

9.3.1 Ball-and-Socket Hinges

9.3.2 Two-PieceLug-and-Pin Hinges

9.3.3 Hook-and-Eye Hinges

9.4 Three-Piece Hinges

9.4.1 Three-Piece Lug and Pin

9.4.2 Piano Hinge

9.5 Latches

9.5.1 Snaps

9.5.2 Rathbun Spring

9.6 Number of Hinges and Location

10 Hot Plate/Hot Die/Fusion and Hot Wire/Resistance Welding

10.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

10.1.1 Description

10.1.2 Advantages

10.1.3 Disadvantages

10.2 Materials

10.3 The Process

10.4 Types of Hot Plate Welding

10.4.1 Low Temperature Hot Plate Welding

10.4.2 High Temperature Hot Plate Welding

10.4.3 Noncontact Hot Plate Welding

10.5 Hot Plate Welding Joint Designs

10.6 Equipment

10.7 Hot Wire/Resistance Welding

10.8 Sources

11 Hot Gas Welding

11.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

11.1.1 Advantages

11.1.2 Disadvantages

11.2 The Process

11.2.1 Tack Welding

11.2.2 Permanent Hot Gas Welding

11.2.3 High Speed Welding

11.2.4 Extrusion Welding

11.3 Joint Designs

11.4 Welding Practice

11.4.1 Appearance Problems

11.4.2 Cracking Problems

11.4.3 Distortion

11.4.4 Fusion Problems

11.4.5 Penetration

11.4.6 Porosity

11.4.7 Scorching

11.5 Testing the Weld

11.5.1 Nondestructive Testing

11.5.1.1 Visual Examination

11.5.1.2 Leak Tests

11.5.2 Destructive Tests

11.5.2.1 Tensile Test

11.5.2.2 Bending Test

11.5.2.3 Rod Removal Test

11.5.3 Chemical Test

11.5.4 Spark Test

11.6 Applications

11.7 Sources

11.7.1 Welding Rods

11.7.2 Welding Equipment

11.7.3 Welding Rod And Equipment

12 Induction/Electromagnetic Welding

12.1 Description

12.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

12.2.1 Advantages

12.2.2 Disadvantages

12.3 The Equipment

12.4 The Process

12.5 The Coil

12.5.1 Single-Turn Coils

12.5.2 Hairpin Coils

12.5.3 Multi-Turn Coils

12.5.4 Split Coils

12.5.5 Other Types of Coils

12.5.6 Coil Positioning

12.5.7 Flux Concentrators

12.6 Materials

12.6.1 Polymers

12.6.2 The Electromagnetic Material

12.6.2.1 Molded-in Pre-Forms

12.6.2.2 Hot Melt Electromagnetic Materials

12.6.2.3 Liquid Electromagnetic Materials

12.7 Joint Designs

12.8 Encapsulation

12.9 Film and Sheeting

12.9.1 Intermittent Sealing

12.9.2 Continuous Sealing

12.10 Inserting Metal into Plastic

12.11 Sources

13 Insert and Multipart Molding

13.1 Description

13.2 Insert Molding

13.2.1 Advantages of Insert Molding

13.2.2 Disadvantages of Insert Molding

13.2.3 Design with Threaded Inserts

13.2.4 Mold Considerations for Threaded Inserts

13.2.5 Custom-Designed Inserts

13.2.6 Outserts: Inserts Larger than the Moldment

13.2.7 Hermetic Seals

13.2.8 PreparationofInserts

13.2.9 Decorative Inserts

13.3 Multi-Part Molding

13.3.1 Description

13.3.2 Advantages Particular to Multi-part Molding

13.3.3 Disadvantages Particular to Multi-part Molding

13.3.4 The Process

13.3.5 Materials

14 Press Fits/Force Fits/ Interference Fits/Shrink Fits

14.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

14.1.1 Advantages

14.1.2 Disadvantages

14.2 Press Fit Engineering

14.2.1 Engineering Notation

14.2.2 Geometric Factor

14.2.3 Changes Due to Temperature Variations

14.2.4 Hoop Stress

14.2.4.1 Metal Shaft in Plastic Boss

14.2.4.2 Shaft and Boss of Same Material

14.2.4.3 Shaft and Boss of Different Plastics

14.2.4.4 Quick Methods

14.2.5 Assembly and Disassembly Forces

14.2.6 Dimensional Changes Due to Assembly

14.2.7 Relationships

14.2.8 Equation Limitations

14.3 Safety Factor

14.4 Processing

14.5 Material Selection

14.6 Part Design

14.6.1 Heavy-Duty Press Fits

14.6.2 Light-Duty or Reopenable Press Fits

14.6.3 Other than Round

14.7 Case Studies

14.7.1 Determination of Changes in Diameter Due to Temperature Variations

14.7.2 The Geometric Factor for Use In Press Fit Equations

14.7.3 Determination of Design Stress and for a Metal Shaft in a Plastic Boss Maximum Allowable Interference for a Metal Shaftina Plastic

14.7.4 Dimensional Changes Due to Assembly

14.7.4.1 Metal Shaft in Plastic Boss

14.7.4.2 Plastic Shaft and Metal Boss

14.7.5 Determination of Design Stress and Maximum Allowable Interference for a Shaft and Boss of the Same Material

14.7.6 Determination of Design Stress and Maximum Allowable Interference for a Shaft and Boss of Different Plastics

14.7.7 Determination of Assembly and Disassembly Forces

14.7.8 Determination of Torsional Holding Capacity

15 Snap Fits

15.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

15.1.1 Advantages

15.1.2 Disadvantages

15.2 General Applications

15.3 General Engineering Principles

15.3.1 Allowable Dynamic Strain

15.3.2 Corner Stress Concentrations

15.3.3 Engineering Adjustments When Both Parts Are Elastic

15.3.4 Finite Element Analysis

15.4 Cantilever Snap Fits

15.4.1 Cantilever Snap Fit Designs

15.4.2 Cantilever Snap Fit Engineering

15.5 Cylindrical, Ring, Perimeter, or Annular Snap Fits

15.5.1 Cylindrical Snap Fit Designs

15.5.2 Engineering of Cylindrical, Ring, Perimeter, or Annular Snap Fits

15.5.2.1 Maximum Permissible Interference

15.5.2.2 Transverse and Axial Forces

15.6 Torsion Snap Fits

15.6.1 Torsion Snap Fit Designs

15.6.2 Engineering of Torsion Snap Fits

15.8 The Injection Molding Process

15.9 Molds for Snap Fits

15.9.1 The Basics of Injection Mold Construction

15.9.2 Ejection and Cooling Systems for Stripping Molds

15.9.3 Cores for Nonstripping Molds

15.9.4 Snap Fit Details in the Mold Cavity

15.11 Case Studies

15.11.1 Cantilever Snap Fit Determination of Permissable Deflection

15.11.2 Cantilever Snap Fit Determination of Radial and Mating Forces

15.11.3 Annular Snap Fit Determination of Maximum Permissable Interference

15.11.4 Annular Snap Fit Determination of Maximum Design Strain

15.11.5 Annular Snap Fit Determination of Transverse and Axial Forces for a Snap Fitment Located Near the End of the Tube

15.11.6 Annular Snap Fit Determination of Transverse and Axial Forces for a Snap Fitment Located Remote From the End of the Tube

15.11.7 Self-locking Angle

16 Spin Welding

16.1 Description of Spin Welding

16.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Spin Welding

16.2.1 Advantages

16.2.2 Disadvantages

16.3 Spin Welding Process

16.4 Materials

16.5 Design for Spin Welding

16.5.1 Overall Design Considerations

16.5.2 Joint Designs

16.6 The Equipment for Spin Welding

16.6.1 Drill-Press-Based Spin Welders

16.6.1.1 Tooling for Drill-Press-Based Inertial Welding

16.6.1.2 Tooling for Drill-Press-Based Pivot Tool Welding

16.6.2 Commercial Inertia Spin Welders

16.6.3 Commercial Direct-Drive Spin Welders

16.7 Sources

17 Staking/Swaging/Peening/ Cold Heading/Cold Forming

17.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Staking/ Cold Forming

17.1.1 Advantages

17.1.2 Disadvantages

17.2 Staking

17.2.1 Cold Forming of Stakes

17.2.2 Hot Air/Cold Staking

17.2.3 Ultrasonic Cold Forming

17.2.4 Hot Die Forming of Stakes (Thermal Staking)

17.2.5 Ultrasonic Hot Forming of Stakes

17.2.6 Laser Staking

17.3 Stake Design

17.3.1 The Stud

17.3.2 Stake Heads

17.4 Swaging

17.5 Sources

17.5.1 Thermal Staking

17.5.2 Hot Air/Cold Staking

17.5.3 Laser Staking

17.5.4 Ultrasonic

18 Threads: Tapped and Molded-in

18.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Integral Threads

18.1.1Advantages Commonto Threads of BothTypes

18.1.2 Disadvantages Common toThreads of Both Types

18.2 Drilled and Tapped Holes in Plastics

18.2.1 Advantages Unique to Tapped Threads

18.2.2 Disadvantages Unique to Tapped Threads

18.2.3 Drilling Holes in Plastics

18.2.4 Reaming Holes in Plastics

18.2.5 Tapping Holes in Plastics

18.3 Molded Threads in Plastics

18.3.1 Advantages Unique to Molded-in Threads

18.3.2 Disadvantages Unique to Molded-in Threads

18.3.3 Thread Design

18.3.4 Molds for Threads

18.3.4.1 Stripping Molds for Internal Threads

18.3.4.2 Collapsing Core Molds for Internal Threads

18.3.4.3 Expandable Cavity Molds for External Threads

18.3.4.4 Split-Cavity Molds for External Threads

18.3.4.5 Unscrewing Molds for Internal Threads

18.3.4.6 Unscrewing Chuck Plate Mold

18.3.4.7 Molds for Parts with Less than One Turn of Thread

18.4 Sources

18.4.1Collapsing Cores and Cavities

18.4.2 Unscrewing Chuck

19 UltrasonicWelding

19.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Welding

19.1.1Advantages

19.1.2Disadvantages

19.2 General Applications

19.3 The Principle of Ultrasonic Welding

19.4 Materials for Ultrasonic Welding

19.4.1 Additives and Contaminants

19.4.1.1 Colorants

19.4.1.2 Fillers, Extenders, and Fibrous Reinforcements

19.4.1.3 Flame Retardants

19.4.1.4 Foaming Agents

19.4.1.5 Impact Modifiers

19.4.1.6 Lubricants

19.4.1.7 Mold Releases

19.4.1.8 Painted Parts

19.4.1.9 Plasticizers

19.4.1.10 Regrind

19.5 Part Design for Ultrasonic Welding

19.5.1 Overall Ultrasonic Welding Considerations

19.5.1.1 Strength Requirements

19.5.1.2 Appearance Requirements

19.5.1.3 Rigidity Considerations

19.5.2 Joint Fundamentals

19.5.2.1 Part Alignment

19.5.2.2 Uniform Vibration Travel Distance

19.5.2.3 Minimal Initial Contact Area

19.5.3 Energy Director Joints

19.5.3.1 Butt Joint

19.5.3.2 Joint Layout

19.5.3.3 Textured Surface

19.5.3.4 Step Joint

19.5.3.5 Tongue-and-Groove Joint

19.5.4 Shear Joints

19.5.5 Hermetic Seals

19.5.6 Scan Welding

19.5.7 Stud Welding, Staking, Swaging, and Spot Welding

19.5.7.1 Stakingand Swaging

19.5.7.2 Stud Welding

19.6 Fabric and Film Sealing

19.7 The Ultrasonic Equipment

19.7.1 The Basic Principles

19.7.2 The Power Supply or Generator

19.7.3 The Converter or Transducer

19.7.4 The Booster

19.7.5 The Horn

19.7.6 The Fixture

19.7.7 The Controls

19.7.8 Equipment Frequency

19.7.9 Automation of Ultrasonic Welding

19.8 Sources

20 Vibration Welding

20.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

20.1.1 Comparison with Ultrasonic Welding

20.1.2 Advantages of Vibration Welding

20.1.3 Disadvantages of Vibration Welding

20.2 The Process of Vibration Welding

20.2.1 Linear Vibration Welding

20.2.2 Orbital Vibration Welding

20.2.3 Angular Vibration Welding

20.3 Materials

20.4 Vibration Welding Part Design

20.4.1 Basic Considerations

20.4.2 Joint Designs for Linear Vibration Welding

20.5 The Equipment

20.6 Sources

21 Welding with Lasers

21.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

21.1.1 Non-Contact, Surface, Direct, or Butt Laser Welding

21.1.2 Laser Staking

21.1.3 Through TransmissionInfra-Red Laser Welding

21.1.4 Advantages of Through Transmission Laser Welding

21.1.5 Disadvantages of Through Transmission Laser Welding

21.2 The Process of Laser Welding

21.2.1 The Laser

21.2.2 Basic Through Transmission Laser Welding Methods

21.2.3 Spot or Contour Welding

21.2.4 Simultaneous Through TransmissionInfra-Red (STTIr) Laser Welding (Also Known as Simultaneous Line or Flash Welding)

21.2.5 Quasi-Simultaneous Laser Welding

21.2.6 Mask Welding (Leister Patented Process)

21.3 Materials for Laser Welding

21.3.1 Material Properties Affecting Laser Weldability

21.3.2 Effects of Refraction Properties on Material Selection

21.3.3 Effects of Pigments, Fillers, and Additives on Light Transmission

21.3.4 Laser Welding Transmitting Materials

21.3.5Compatibility of Plastics for Laser Welding

21.4 Joint Designs

21.5 Equipment

21.6 Applications

21.7 Sources

References

Index