Solid Phase Processing of Polymers

Foreword

Contents

1 Introduction

1.1 Key Scientific Issues

1.1.1 The chemical structure of the polymer and its degrees of regularity

1.1.2 The effect of plastic deformation, the concept of the true stress-true strain curve

1.1.3 Structural considerations: molecular understanding of plastic deformation

References

2 Deformation Mechanisms and Morphology of Crystalline Polymers

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Macroscopic Phenomena

2.3 Cracks, Crazing and Brittleness

2.4 Segregation-Induced Brittleness

2.5 Cold Drawing

2.6 Morphological Factors

2.7 Microscopic Observations

2.8 Electron Microscopy

2.9 The Deformation of Banded Spherulites

2.10 Lamellar Deformation

2.11 Memory Retention in Cold Drawing

2.12 Ordering Within Fibres

2.13 Disentanglement

2.14 Overview

References

3 Characterization of Orientation

3.1 Molecular Orientation and Its Definition

3.2 Birefringence

3.2.1 Biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film

3.2.2 PET orientation and relaxation monitoring

3.3 Vibrational Spectroscopy

3.3.1 General

3.3.2 Transmission infrared spectroscopy

3.3.3 Attenuated total reflection (ATR) infrared spectroscopy

3.3.4 External reflection infrared spectroscopy

3.3.5 Photoacoustic infrared spectroscopy

3.3.6 Raman spectroscopy

3.4 Other Spectroscopic Techniques

3.4.1 Fluorescence

3.4.2 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy

3.5. X-Ray Diffraction

3.5.1 General

3.5.2 Amorphous orientation from X-Ray diffraction

3.5.3 Synchrotron X-Ray diffraction

3.6 Ultrasonic and Other Techniques

References

4. Solid State Processing of Fibers

4.1 Introduction

4.1.1 Background

4.1.2 Common polymers used in man made fibers

4.2 Overview of Fiber Processing

4.3 The Liquid State

4.4 The Spinning Process

4.4.1 Spinning technology

4.4.2 Modelling the spinning process

4.4.3. Development of structure during melt spinning

4.4.4 Development of structure during solution spinning

4.4.5 Development of structure during liquid crystalline spinning

4.5 The Drawing Process

4.5.1 Drawing technology

4.5.2 Modelling the drawing process

4.5.3 Development of structure during drawing of flexible chain polymers

4.6 The Heat Treating Process

4.6.1 Heat treating technology

4.6.2 Development of structure during the heat treating of flexible chain polymers

4.6.3 Development of structure during the heat treating of rigid chain polymers

4.7 Fiber Structure: Multiphase Models

4.8 General Process-Structure-Property Relationships

4.9 Other Textile Processes

4.10 Special Processes

4.10.1 Gel spinning and superdrawing

4.10.2 Protein fibers

4.11 Conclusions: what do you want to make - what really matters

References

5 High Modulus Fibres

5.1 Melt Spun Polyethylene, Polypropylene and Polyoxymethylene (Polyacetal) Fibres

5.1.1 Introduction

5.1.2 The tensile drawing behaviour of polyethylene

5.1.3 Tensile drawing of polypropylene and polyoxymethylene

5.1.4 The structure of ultra high modulus polymers

5.1.5 Fibre strength

5.1.6 Other mechanical properties

5.1.7 Thermal properties

5.1.8 Surface treatment

5.1.9 Applications of melt spun PE fibres

5.1.10 Composites

5.1.11 Hot compaction

References

5.2 Aramid Fibres

5.2.1 Historical introduction

5.2.2 Heat- and flame-resistant meta-aramid fibres

5.2.3 High-tenacity high-modulus fibres from anisotropic solution

5.3.3 High-tenacity high-modulus aramid fibres from isotropic solutions

References

5.3 Fibres Based on Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene - Processing and Applications

5.3.1 Introduction

5.3.2 The ultimate stiffness and strength of flexible polymers

5.3.3 Chain-extension, on the borderline between solid and melt

5.3.4 Properties and applications of polyethylene fibres

5.3.5 Limiting properties of polyethylene fibres

5.3.6 Conclusions

References

6 Development of Molecular Orientation During Biaxial Film Tentering of PET

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Definitions, Materials and Experimental Characterisation Techniques

6.2.1 Quantitative characterisation of orientation

6.2.2 Experimental techniques: Characterization of the crystalline phase

6.3 First Stretching Process

6.3.1 Normal sequence

6.3.2 Inverse sequence

6.3.3 Comparison between constant rate and constant force drawing of amorphous samples

6.4 Transverse Stretching of One-Way Drawn Samples

6.4.1 Transverse stretching in the normal sequence

6.4.2 Transverse stretching in the inverse sequence

6.4.3 Comparison between constant rate and constant force transverse drawing

6.5 High Temperature Annealing

6.5.1 Influence of annealing time

6.5.2 Influence of the annealing temperature

6.6 Conclusions

References

7. Rolling and Roll-Drawing of Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastics

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 Why orient polymers?

7.1.2 Orientation processes and solid state deformation of semi-crystalline polymers

7.2 Rolling and Roll-drawing

7.2.1 Introduction

7.2.2 Roll-drawing of semi-crystalline polymers

7.2.3 Structure development

7.2.4 Mechanical properties

7.3 A Case Study: PET

7.3.1 Orientation of PET

7.3.2 Relaxation and recovery during rolling

7.4 Roll-Drawing ofPET

7.4.1 Roll-drawing of amorphous PET

7.4.2 Roll-drawing of semi-crystalline PET

7.4.3 Properties

References

8 Planar Deformation of Thermoplastics

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Concepts

8.2.1 Synergistic effect

8.2.2 Orientation texture

8.2.3 Order-disorder transition

8.3 Physical Properties Induced By Planar Deformation

8.3.1 Polyethylene

8.3.2 Polypropylene

8.3.3 Higher poly-1-olefine

8.3.4 Poly(ethylene terephthalate)

8.3.5 Polyimide

8.3.6 Other thermoplastics

8.4 Analytical Approaches for Planar Deformation

8.4.1 Ductility and draw efficiency

8.4.2 Trirefringence

8.4.3 X-ray analysis

8.4.4 Spectroscopy

8.4.5 Neutron scattering

8.4.6 Elastic recovery

8.4.7 Gas permeation

8.4.8 Mechanical tests

8.4.9 Multiple regression analysis

References

9 Solid State Extrusion and Die Drawing

9.1 Ram Extrusion

9.2 Hydrostatic Extrusion

9.2.1 Introduction

9.2.2 The mechanics of the hydrostatic extrusion process

9.2.3 Hydrostatic extrusion as a possible engineering operation

9.2.4 Hydrostatic extrusion of pressure annealed polyethylene

9.2.5 Hydrostatic extrusion of filled polymers

9.2.6 Other properties of hydrostatically extruded materials

9.3 Die-Drawing

9.3.1 The die-drawing process

9.3.2 Die-drawing of tube

9.3.3 Development of the continuous die-drawing process

9.3.4 Mechanics of the die-drawing process

9.3.5 Properties of die-drawn products

9.3.6 Applications of die-drawn materials

References

10. Mathematical Modelling

10.1 Constitutive Equations

10.1.1 Phenomenological equations

10.1.2 Constitutive relations incorporating the deformation of a molecular network

10.2 Numerical Modelling of Forming Processes

10.2.1 Elastic constitutive behaviour

10.2.2 Rate dependent constitutive behaviour

References

Index