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Felipe Wolff-Fabris, Volker Altstädt, Ulrich Arnold, Manfred Döring
Electron Beam Curing of Composites
Contents
6
1 Introduction to Electron Beam Curing of Composites
8
1.1 Principles of the Technique
8
1.2 Chemical Aspects of the Curing Reaction
9
1.2.1 Free Radical Polymerization
10
1.2.2 Cationic Polymerization
11
1.2.3 Network Formation
13
1.3 Parameters Affecting Electron Beam Curing
14
1.3.1 Impurities
14
1.3.2 Irradiation Dose
15
1.3.3 Initiator Content
16
1.3.4 Thermal history
16
1.3.5 Irradiation Energy
18
1.4 Electron Beam Curing Facilities
20
1.5 Safety Issues
22
2 Aspects of Electron Beam Curable Materials
24
2.1 Initiators
24
2.1.1 Onium Salt Initiators
27
2.1.1.1 Iodonium Salt Initiators
27
2.1.1.2 Sulfonium Salt Initiators
33
2.1.1.3 Other Onium Salt Initiators and Related Compounds
41
2.1.2 Metal Complex Initiators
44
2.1.2.1 Cyclopentadienyl Iron(II) Arene Complex Initiators
44
2.1.2.2 Silver Alkene Complex Initiators
46
2.2 Neat Resins
48
2.2.1 Free Radical Polymerizable Resins
48
2.2.2 Cationically Polymerizable Resins
50
2.3 Toughened Resins
52
2.3.1 Liquid Reactive Rubber
54
2.3.2 Core-Shell Rubber Particles
55
2.3.3 Thermoplastics
63
2.3.4 Block Co-polymers
74
2.3.5 Inorganic Nanoparticles
79
2.3.6 Hyperbranched Polymers
83
2.4 Interfacial Properties Between Fibers and Matrix
84
2.4.1 Fiber Surface Treatment and Use of Sizings
85
2.4.2 Processing Conditions
86
2.5 Residual Stresses
87
2.6 Effect of Post-Curing
88
3 Electron Beam Curing Applied to Composite Molding Technologies
92
3.1 Layer-by-Layer Assembly
92
3.2 Prepregging
94
3.3 Vacuum Bagging
95
3.4 Pultrusion
96
3.5 Filament Winding
96
3.6 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) and Vacuum Assisted RTM (VARTM)
97
3.7 Lost Core Molding
98
4 Current Limitations and Potentials for Electron Beam Curing
100
4.1 Cost Analysis of Electron Beam Curing Processes
100
4.2 Comparison Between Thermal and Electron Beam Cured Materials in Terms of Properties
102
4.3 Summary of Potential Applications for Electron Beam Curing
105
5 Research Trends and Projects in the Field of Electron Beam Curing
108
6 Examples of Electron Beam Curing Applications
112
6.1 Automotive
112
6.1.1 Composite Concept Vehicle, Daimler-Chrysler
112
6.1.2 Composite Armored Vehicle, US Army
112
6.2 Aircraft Industry
114
6.2.1 Patch Repairs for Civil and Military Applications
114
6.2.2 T-38 Talon, US Air Force
116
6.2.3 F/A-18 Hornet, Northrop Grumman
117
6.3 Space Applications
118
6.3.1 Space Shuttle Venture Star, Lockheed and NASA
118
6.3.2 Satellite’s Flywheel, AFS Trinity and NASA
120
6.3.3 Satellite’s Reflector Dish, Acsion and CASA (Spanish space agency)
121
References
122
Appendix 1: Key Players in Electron Beam Curing
130
Appendix 2: List of Commercially Available Materials for Electron Beam Curing
132
Subject Index
134
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