Zu Hanser-Fachbuch.de
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Hans-Josef Endres, Andrea Siebert-Raths
Engineering Biopolymers
Markets, Manufacturing, Properties and Applications
Preface
6
Contents
8
1 Introduction
18
1.1 Defining the Topic
18
1.2 What are Biopolymers?
21
1.2.1 Degradable Petroleum- Based Biopolymers
22
1.2.2 Degradable Bio- Based Biopolymers
23
1.2.3 Non- Degradable Bio- Based Biopolymers
23
1.2.4 Blends and Copolymers from Various Groups of Raw and Manufactured Materials
24
1.3 General Requirements for Biopolymers
25
1.3.1 Disposal of Conventional and Biodegradable Plastics
25
1.3.2 Limitation of Petrochemical Resources
29
1.3.3 Sustainability as a Factor of Corporate Strategy
34
2 State of Knowledge
36
2.1 History of Biopolymers
36
2.2 Development of Successive Biopolymer Materials Generations
37
2.3 Biological Degradability and Compostability
39
2.4 Oxo- Degradability
43
2.5 Resource and Land Requirements for Manufacturing Biopolymers
44
2.6 Sustainability and Entropic Efficiency of Biopolymers
52
2.7 The Proprietary Situation of Biopolymers
58
3 The Regulatory Framework for Biopolymers
62
3.1 Framing for Testing Compostability
62
3.1.1 DIN V 54900
63
3.1.2 DIN EN 13432
66
3.1.3 DIN EN 14995
66
3.1.4 ISO 17088
66
3.1.5 BNQ- 9011– 911
66
3.1.6 ASTM D6400
67
3.1.7 ASTM D6868
67
3.1.8 AS 4736
67
3.1.9 Comparison of Superordinate Standards
68
3.2 Test Standards for Execution ( Normative References)
70
3.2.1 Guidelines
71
3.2.2 Standards for Packaging (General)
71
3.2.3 Aerobic Biodegradation – Aquatic
73
3.2.4 Aerobic Biodegradation – Terrestrial
74
3.2.5 Anaerobic Biodegradability
76
3.2.6 ASTM D6866 (14C Method)
77
3.2.7 OECD Guidelines
78
3.2.8 Japanese Standards
79
3.2.9 VDI 4427
80
3.3 Permissible Auxiliary Substances and Additives
81
3.4 Certification of Compostability
82
4 Manufacture and Chemical Structure of Biopolymers
88
4.1 Manufacturing of Biopolymers
88
4.1.1 Chemical Synthesis of Petrochemical Raw Materials
90
4.1.2 Chemical Synthesis of Bio- Based Feedstock
99
4.1.3 Direct Biosynthesis of Biopolymers
117
4.1.4 Modification of Renewable Feedstocks
123
4.1.5 Blends
144
4.2 Chemical Structure of Biopolymers
145
4.2.1 Polymethylenes
145
4.2.2 Polyethers ( Polyglycols)
148
4.2.3 Polysaccharide Polymers
149
4.2.4 ( Bio-) Polyester
154
4.2.5 ( Bio-) Polyamides ( Bio- PA)
160
4.2.6 ( Bio-) Polyurethane ( Bio- PUR)
164
4.2.7 Protein- Based Polymers
164
4.2.8 Polyvinyl Pyrrolidones ( PVP)
165
5 Engineering Property Profiles of Biopolymers
166
5.1 Property Profiles of the Most Important Biopolymers
167
5.1.1 Polyvinyl Alcohols ( PVA, PVAL, PVOH)
167
5.1.2 Polycaprolactone ( PCL)
173
5.1.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates ( PHA)
174
5.1.4 Polylactic Acid ( PLA)
178
5.1.5 PLA Blends and PLA Copolymers
183
5.1.6 Bio- Copolyesters and Copolyester Blends
185
5.1.7 Starch / Starch Blends / Thermoplastic Starch ( TPS)
186
5.1.8 Cellulose Regenerates (CH)
188
5.1.9 Cellulose Derivates (CA, CP, CB, CN, CAB, CAP)
190
5.1.10 Bio- PE, Bio- PA, Bio- PUR
193
5.2 Properties in Comparison with Conventional Plastics
194
5.2.1 Biopolymer Materials for Injection Molding Applications
194
5.2.2 Materials for Biopolymer Film
217
5.2.3 Conclusions for Future Applications
239
6 End- of- Life Options for Biopolymers
242
6.1 Landfill
242
6.2 Recycling
243
6.2.1 Thermo- Mechanical Recycling
243
6.2.2 Chemical Recycling
245
6.3 Composting
245
6.3.1 Industrial Composting
246
6.3.2 Domestic Composting
247
6.4 Incineration
248
6.4.1 Calorific Value of Biopolymers
249
6.4.2 Emissions Created by the Incineration of Biopolymers
251
6.5 Anaerobic Digestion ( Biogas Generation)
255
6.6 Product- Specific Disposal
259
6.6.1 Solution/ Degradation in Water
259
6.6.2 Decomposition/ Degradation in Soil
259
6.6.3 Decomposition/ Degradation in the Organism ( Consumption, Biodegradation)
260
6.7 Littering
260
7 Life- Cycle Assessment for Biopolymers
262
7.1 Methods of Life- Cycle Assessment ( LCA)
262
7.1.1 Defining the Goal and Scope of Testing
264
7.1.2 Preparing an Life- Cycle Inventory
265
7.1.3 Estimating Effects and Impacts
266
7.1.4 Analyzing the Results
269
7.2 Data for the Life- Cycle Assessment of Biopolymers
270
8 Market Characterization for Biopolymers
278
8.1 Current Availability and Future Capacities
278
8.2 The Current Price Situation
284
8.3 Biopolymer Manufacturers and Material Types
285
8.3.1 Absorbable Polymer Technologies
299
8.3.2 Acetati SpA
299
8.3.3 Agrana Stärke GmbH
299
8.3.4 Agro- Industrie Recherches et Développements (ARD)
299
8.3.5 Akro- Plastic GmbH
300
8.3.6 Albis Plastics GmbH
300
8.3.7 Anqing Hexing Chemical Co., Ltd.
301
8.3.8 API SpA
301
8.3.9 Archer Daniels Midland Company (ADM)
302
8.3.10 Arkema SA
302
8.3.11 Ashland Inc.
303
8.3.12 BASF SE
303
8.3.13 Bayer AG
304
8.3.14 Bioamber
305
8.3.15 Biobased Chem Co. Ltd.
305
8.3.16 BioBased Technologies LLC
306
8.3.17 Biocycle
306
8.3.18 BioMatera Inc.
307
8.3.19 Biome Bioplastics Ltd.
307
8.3.20 Biomer
308
8.3.21 Bio- Natural Technology Co., Ltd.
309
8.3.22 Bio- On Srl
309
8.3.23 Biop Biopolymer Technologies AG
310
8.3.24 Biopearls B. V.
311
8.3.25 Biostarch Ltd.
311
8.3.26 Biotor Industries Ltd.
312
8.3.27 Biotec GmbH & Co. KG
312
8.3.28 Birmingham Polymers
313
8.3.29 Braskem S. A.
313
8.3.30 Cardia Bioplastics ( Biograde Ltd.)
314
8.3.31 Cargill Dow LLC
315
8.3.32 Cargill Inc.
316
8.3.33 Chang Chun Plastics Co., Ltd.
317
8.3.34 Celanese Corp.
317
8.3.35 Cereplast Inc.
318
8.3.36 Cerestech Inc.
319
8.3.37 Chengu Dikang Biomedical Co., Ltd.
320
8.3.38 Chinese Academy of Science, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry ( CIAC)
320
8.3.39 Chronopol Inc.
320
8.3.40 Corn Products International Inc.
321
8.3.41 Croda International Plc.
321
8.3.42 Crystalsev Ltda.
321
8.3.43 CSM N. V.
322
8.3.44 Daicel Chemicals Industries Ltd.
322
8.3.45 Dainippon Ink and Chemicals
323
8.3.46 DaniMer Scientific
323
8.3.47 DIC Corporation
323
8.3.48 DNP Green Technology Inc.
324
8.3.49 The Dow Chemical Company
324
8.3.50 DSM N. V.
325
8.3.51 DuPont
326
8.3.52 DuPont Tate & Lyle Bio Products LLC
329
8.3.53 Durect Corporation
330
8.3.54 Eastman Chemical Company
330
8.3.55 Elastogran GmbH
331
8.3.56 EMS Chemie GmbH
331
8.3.57 Evonik Industries AG
332
8.3.58 Fasal Wood KEG
333
8.3.59 FKuR Kunststoff GmbH
334
8.3.60 Fujitsu Ltd.
336
8.3.61 Futerro
337
8.3.62 FuturaMat
337
8.3.63 Galactic
338
8.3.64 German Bioplastics Merzenich & Strauß GmbH
338
8.3.65 Grace Biotech Corporation
339
8.3.66 Guangzhou Bright China Biotechnological Co., Ltd.
339
8.3.67 Harbin Livan Biodegradable Product Co., Ltd.
339
8.3.68 Harbin Weilida Pharmaceuticals Co., Ltd.
340
8.3.69 Henan Piaoan Group Company Ltd.
340
8.3.70 Heritage Plastics, Inc.
340
8.3.71 Hisun Biomaterials Co., Ltd.
341
8.3.72 Hobum Oleochemicals GmbH
341
8.3.73 ICO Polymers Inc.
342
8.3.74 IFA- Tulln
342
8.3.75 IFS Chemicals Ltd.
343
8.3.76 IGV Institut für Getreideverarbeitung GmbH
343
8.3.77 Innovia Films Ltd.
344
8.3.78 IRE Chemicals Ltd.
344
8.3.79 Jamplast Inc.
345
8.3.80 Japan Corn Starch Co., Ltd.
345
8.3.81 Japan Vam & Poval Co., Ltd.
346
8.3.82 JER Envirotech
347
8.3.83 Kaneka Corporation
347
8.3.84 Kareline OY Ltd.
348
8.3.85 Kingfa Sci. & Tech. Co., Ltd.
348
8.3.86 Kuraray Co., Ltd.
349
8.3.87 Lati Industria Termolastici SpA
350
8.3.88 Limagrain Céréales Ingrédients
351
8.3.89 Mazda Motor Corporation
351
8.3.90 Mazzucchelli 1849 SpA
352
8.3.91 Meredian Inc.
352
8.3.92 Merquinsa S. A.
353
8.3.93 Metabolix
354
8.3.94 Metzeler Schaum GmbH
354
8.3.95 Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings Corporation
355
8.3.96 Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Company Inc. ( MGC)
355
8.3.97 Mitsui Chemicals Inc.
356
8.3.98 Nantong Jiuding Biological Engineering Co., Ltd.
357
8.3.99 NatureWorks LLC
357
8.3.100 NEC Corporation
359
8.3.101 Nihon Shokuhin Kako Co., Ltd.
359
8.3.102 Novamont SpA.
359
8.3.103 Novomer Inc.
360
8.3.104 Novozymes A/ S
361
8.3.105 PE Design & Engineering B. V.
361
8.3.106 Perstorp UK Ltd.
362
8.3.107 Peter Holland B. V.
362
8.3.108 PHB Industrial Brasil S. A.
362
8.3.109 Plantic Technologies Ltd.
363
8.3.110 Polyfea
364
8.3.111 Polykemi AB
365
8.3.112 PolyOne
365
8.3.113 Polymer Technology Group
367
8.3.114 Polysciences Inc.
367
8.3.115 Procter & Gamble Chemicals
367
8.3.116 PSM ( HK) Co., Ltd.
368
8.3.117 Purac
369
8.3.118 Pyramid Bioplastics Guben GmbH
369
8.3.119 Rhodia
370
8.3.120 Rodenburg Biopolymers B. V.
370
8.3.121 Roquette
371
8.3.122 Rotuba
371
8.3.123 RTP Company
372
8.3.124 Shanghai Tong-Jie- Liang Biomaterials Co., Ltd.
373
8.3.125 Shimadzu Corporation
374
8.3.126 Showa Highpolymer Co., Ltd.
374
8.3.127 SK Chemicals
375
8.3.128 Solvay S. A.
375
8.3.129 Sphere Group
376
8.3.130 Stanelco Group
376
8.3.131 Starch Tech Inc.
377
8.3.132 Stepah N. V.
377
8.3.133 Suzhou Hipro Polymers
377
8.3.134 Sulzer Chemtech AG
379
8.3.135 Synbra Technology B. V.
379
8.3.136 Tate & Lyle PLC
380
8.3.137 Tecnaro GmbH
381
8.3.138 Teijin Limited
381
8.3.139 Teknor Apex
382
8.3.140 Telles
383
8.3.141 Tianan Biologic Material Co., Ltd.
383
8.3.142 Tianjin Green BioScience Co., Ltd.
384
8.3.143 Toray Industries
385
8.3.144 Total Petrochemicals
385
8.3.145 Toyobo Vylon
386
8.3.146 Toyota
386
8.3.147 Union Carbide Corporation
387
8.3.148 Unitika Ltd.
387
8.3.149 Urethane Soy Systems Company
387
8.3.150 Vegeplast SAS
388
8.3.151 Vertellus Specialties Inc.
389
8.3.152 VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
389
8.3.153 Wacker Chemie AG
389
8.3.154 Wuhan Huali Environment Protection Science & Technology Co., Ltd.
390
8.3.155 Zhejiang Hangzhou Xinfu Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.
390
8.3.156 Zhejiang Hisun Biomaterials Co., Ltd.
391
8.4 Biopolymer Processors/ Converters
391
Appendix
400
A Manufacturers, Trade Names, and Material Data Sheets
400
References
672
Index
684
Authors
692
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