Franz Fourné
Synthetic Fibers
Machines and Equipment Manufacture, Properties
Preface
8
Contents??????????????????????????????
10
1 Introduction??????????????????????????????????????????
22
1.1 General Remarks????????????????????????????????????????????????????
22
1.2 Conditions for the Production of Textile Fibers????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
22
1.3 The Most Important Fiber Raw Materials??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
26
1.4 Economic Development??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
35
1.5 Price Developments??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
42
1.6 Raw Materials????????????????????????????????????????????????
46
References??????????????????????????????????
51
2 Polymer Specific Processes??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
54
2.1 Polymerization, Polycondensation, and Polyaddition
54
2.1.1 Polymerization??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
54
2.1.2 Polycondensation??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
55
2.1.3 Polyaddition??????????????????????????????????????????????????
55
2.2 Polyamides (PA)????????????????????????????????????????????????????
55
2.2.1 Introduction??????????????????????????????????????????????????
55
2.2.2 Polyamide 4 (PA4)????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
57
2.2.3 Polyamide 6 (PA6)????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
57
2.2.4 Polyamide 66 (PA66)????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
78
2.2.5 Other Polyamides??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
85
2.3 Polyester (PES)????????????????????????????????????????????????????
88
2.3.1 Introduction??????????????????????????????????????????????????
88
2.3.2 Production of Dimethyl Terephthalate (DMT), Terephthalic Acid (TPA) AND Ethylene Glycol (EG)
89
2.3.3 Process for the Production of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
90
2.3.4 Autoclave Polycondensation to PET????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
97
2.3.5 Continuous Polycondensation to PET??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
100
2.3.6 Spinning and Drawing of PET????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
107
2.3.7 Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
115
2.4 Polyolefines??????????????????????????????????????????????
116
2.4.1 Polypropylene (PP)??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
116
2.4.2 Polyethylene (PE)????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
131
2.5 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
132
2.5.1 Production of Acrylonitrile ( = Vinylcyanide)????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
134
2.5.2 Polymerization to Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
134
2.5.3 Spinning and Aftertreatment of Polyacrylonitrile??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
142
2.6 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
143
2.6.1 Production of PVC????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
143
2.6.2 Solving and Spinning of PVC and VC-Copolymers????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
144
2.6.3 Syndiotactic PVC??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
144
2.7 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVAL)??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
146
2.7.1 Production Process up to the Spinnable Solution????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
146
2.7.2 Solution Wet Spinning????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
148
2.7.3 Dry Spinning??????????????????????????????????????????????????
149
2.8 Spandex or Elastane Yarns (EL, also PUR)
149
2.8.1 Production of the Polyurethanes????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
150
2.8.2 Installations and Apparati??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
152
2.8.3 Wet Spinning System and Equipment????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
152
2.8.4 Dry Spinning Processes and Installations??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
153
2.8.5 Reaction Spinning Process????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
154
2.8.6 Properties
155
2.8.7 Polyurethane Hard Fibers
157
2.9 Polytetrafluorethylene Fibers (PTFE)
157
2.9.1 Spinning and Drawing of the Filaments
157
2.9.2 Properties
159
2.10 High Tenacity–High Modulus Filaments According to the Gel Spinning Process
159
2.10.1 Principle
159
2.10.2 Process, Machines, and Plants
161
2.10.3 Properties of PE Gel Filaments and Their Uses
163
2.11 High Temperature and High Modulus Fibers
163
2.11.1 General Remarks
163
2.11.2 Polyaramides
166
2.11.3 Polyetherketone (PEK, PEEK, etc.)
167
2.11.4 Polysulfones and Polyether Sulfones
167
2.11.5 Liquid Crystals
168
2.11.6 Polyimides
170
2.12 Other Polymer Fibers and Further Processes
171
2.12.1 Silicone Dioxide Fibers
171
2.12.2 Polycarbosilane and Silicon Carbide Fibers
171
2.12.3 Yarn Production via Carrier Filament
172
2.12.4 Phenol Resin Fibers
174
2.12.5 Super-Absorbing Products (SAP) as Fibers
174
2.12.6 Thermo Bonders
175
2.12.7 Organic Optical Fibers (POF)
176
2.12.8 Electrically Conducting Filaments
176
2.12.9 Interfacial Polycondensation Spinning
178
2.12.10 Reaction Spinning
178
2.12.11 Emulsion and Suspension Spinning
178
2.12.12 Electrostatic Spinning
178
2.13 Fibers from Natural Products
179
2.13.1 Protein Fibers
179
2.13.2 Alginate Fibers
179
2.13.3 Filaments on Cellulose Basis
180
2.13.4 Basalt Fibers
180
References
182
3 Theoretical and Experimental Principles
194
3.1 Reactors for Production and/or Dissolving
194
3.1.1 Selection Criteria
194
3.1.2 Preferred Reactor Cascades
197
3.1.3 Reactor Design
197
3.2 The Spinning Mechanism
198
3.2.1 General View over Melt Spinning
198
3.2.2 Solution Spinning
202
3.3 Filament Take-Up and Filament Cooling
203
3.3.1 Filament Cooling
203
3.3.2 Take-Up Forces
211
3.3.3 Filament Temperatures
212
3.4 Drawing Mechanism
214
3.4.1 Drawing Process
0
3.4.2 Consequences for Drawing
219
3.5 Twisting
220
3.6 False Twist Texturing
222
3.6.1 Principle
222
3.6.2 Influence of the Filament Way Profile
225
3.7 Bobbin Construction
228
3.8 Cops Built-Up in Draw-Twisting and Cops Take-Off
231
3.9 Draw and Holding Forces for Filament and Tow
233
3.10 Contact Heating and Drying of Filaments
235
3.11 Stuffer Box Crimping
237
3.12 Heat Setting
238
3.12.1 Basics
239
3.12.2 Heat Setting Processes for Synthetic Yarn and Fiber Production
241
3.13 Crystallinity
243
References
244
4 Plants, Equipment, and Machines for the Production of Synthetic Yarns and Fibers
248
4.1 General
248
4.2 Chemical Equipment
251
4.2.1 Autoclaves
251
4.2.2 Dissolving and Mixing
256
4.2.3 Pipes and Insulation
258
4.2.4 Pipe Transport Systems for Granules, Powder, and Fibers
259
4.3 Strand Casting and Cooling, Granulating
263
4.3.1 Strand and Ribbon Casting
263
4.3.2 Ribbon and Strand Cooling
264
4.3.3 Granulating
265
4.3.4 Cutting Forces [29], Drive Powers
268
4.3.5 Mechanical Chip Dehydration
269
4.3.6 Granulators
269
4.3.7 Chip Production from Powder
271
4.4 Initial and Intermediate Products, Final Products: Delivery Conditions and Storage
274
4.4.1 Shipping Forms, Packaging
275
4.4.2 Chip Storage and Transport
276
4.5 Drying, Crystallization, and Solid Phase Polycondensation
279
4.5.1 Vacuum Drying and Similar Processes
279
4.5.2 Continuous Chip Drying
282
4.6 Melt Spinning Plants
291
4.6.1 Calculation of the Plant and Equipment Sizes
292
4.6.2 Survey of Melt Spinning Installations for Filaments
296
4.6.3 Chip Gate Valves
303
4.6.4 Spin Extruders
303
4.6.5 Spinning Heads and Spinning Beams
315
4.6.6 Polymer or Melt Valves
329
4.6.7 Static Mixers
330
4.6.8 Spinning Pumps and Other Gear Pumps
333
4.6.9 Melt and Solution Filters
337
4.6.10 Spinnerets
348
4.6.11 Spin Packs (Housings) and Bolting
356
4.6.12 Spinning Pump Drives
364
4.7 Quench Cabinets
367
4.7.1 General
367
4.7.2 Preferred Quenches
371
4.7.3 New Quench Chamber Developments for Very High Spinning Speeds
375
4.7.4 Construction Elements for Quench Chambers
376
4.7.5 Quench Chamber Accessories
380
4.8 Spin Finish Application Systems
388
4.8.1 Roll Application
389
4.8.2 Rod (Bar) Application
389
4.8.3 Spray Application
389
4.8.4 Dipping Bath Application
390
4.8.5 Pin Application (Metered Spin Finish)
390
4.9 Spinning Take-Up Machines
393
4.9.1 The Various Types of Take-Up Machines
394
4.9.2 Yarn Inlet Zone
399
4.9.3 Rolls, Godets, Draw Rolls
401
4.9.4 Separator Rolls
412
4.9.5 Winders
413
4.10 Drawtwisting and Draw-Winding Machines
437
4.10.1 Drawtwisting Machines (Drawtwisters)
438
4.10.2 Construction Elements for Drawtwisters
440
4.11 Warp Drawing, Warp Sizing and Slashing
450
4.12 Texturizing and Drawtexturizing
452
4.12.1 Comparison of Texturizing Processes
453
4.12.2 False Twist Texturizing Machines
460
4.12.3 Stuffer Box Crimping Machines for Filament Yarns
469
4.12.4 Air Jet Texturizing; for Loop- and Entangled Yarn
470
4.12.5 Air Consumption and Yarn Tensions of Texturizing and Aspirating Jets
473
4.12.6 BCF (Bulked Continuous Filament) Texturizing
477
4.13 Staple Fiber Plants
481
4.13.1 Overview
481
4.13.2 Melt Spinning Lines for Staple Fibers
483
4.13.3 Spinning Take-Up Walls and Can Take-Up
484
4.13.4 Creels
486
4.13.5 Tension Compensation and Dipping Bath
491
4.13.6 Drawing Frames
491
4.13.7 Hot Drawing Ovens
494
4.13.8 Tow Spreading and Plying
495
4.13.9 Stuffer Box Crimpers
497
4.13.10 Dryers and Heat-Setting Machines
499
4.13.11 Tow Packaging
502
4.13.12 Staple Cutters
503
4.13.13 Staple Fiber Transport
506
4.13.14 Balers
507
4.14 Dry-Spinning Plants
510
4.14.1 Principle of Dry-Spinning
510
4.14.2 The Dry-Spinning Tube (Shaft, Duct)
513
4.14.3 Staple Fiber Dry-Spinning Lines
517
4.15 Solution Wet-Spinning Plants
519
4.15.1 Wet-Spinning Process
519
4.15.2 Constructional Details of Wet Spinning Lines
521
4.15.3 Aftertreatment Lines for Dry-Spun Tow
529
4.15.4 Solution Wet-Spinning of Multi- and Monofilaments
530
4.16 Piston (Rod) Spinning Units
535
4.16.1 Spinning of Very Small Quantities
535
4.16.2 Ram Extrusion
537
References
537
5 Special Processes and Plants
546
5.1 Short-Spinning Process
546
5.1.1 "Automatik" Compact Staple Spinning System for PP, PE, PA and PET, Combined with a Fleissner Drawing and Crimping Line
548
5.1.2 "Barmag" Compact Staple Spinning System for PP,PE and PET [152]
549
5.1.3 Other Compact Spinning Plants
549
5.1.4 Compact Staple Spinning Plants for Take-Up Speeds up to 2000 m/min
553
5.1.5 Compact Spinning Machines for Coarse Filaments and Fibers
555
5.1.6 Compact Spinning Machines for Filaments
556
5.1.7 Film Tapes and Monofilaments
557
5.2 Bi-and Multicomponent Yarns and Fibers
560
5.2.1 Bicomponent Spinning Processes, -Spinnerets and -Filament Cross-Sections
560
5.2.2 Melt Manifolds for Bicomponent Yarns, etc.
567
5.3 Hollow Filaments
570
5.4 Fine Filament Man-Made Fibers
571
5.4.1 Microfilaments
571
5.4.2 Superdrawing
572
5.4.3 Melt Blowing Process
572
5.4.4 "Flash" Spinning
573
5.5 Spunbond
575
5.5.1 Spinning Equipment
576
5.5.2 Filament Take-Up Devices
581
5.5.3 Spunbond Lines
583
5.5.4 Web Bonding
585
5.5.5 Properties
586
5.5.6 "Claw" Mats
587
5.6 High Temperature Spinning
589
5.6.1 Melt Spinning at Temperatures up to ca. 550°C
589
5.6.2 Melt Spinning Plants for Temperatures above 700°C
590
5.7 Carbon Fibers
592
5.7.1 Processes
592
5.7.2 Process Stages for PAN Precursor Fibers
593
5.7.3 Composites and Prepregs
599
5.8 Converters (Tow to Top or Tow to Spun Yarn Process)
600
5.8.1 PET Tow for Stretch-Break Conversion
601
5.8.2 The Sydel Stretch-Break Converter; The Schlumberger Converter
602
5.9 Tirecord and Other Technical Yarns
604
5.9.1 Yarn Production
605
5.9.2 Cord Construction
606
5.9.3 Cord Physical Properties
607
5.10 Fiberfill
609
5.11 Biodegradable Fibers
610
References
611
6 Auxiliary Plants and Equipment
616
6.1 Package Handling
616
6.1.1 Simple Yarn Package Transport Equipment
616
6.1.2 Doffer Systems
617
6.1.3 Bobbin Transport, Storage, and Packing
621
6.2 Air Conditioning: Conditions and Plants
622
6.2.1 Quench Air Conditioning Plants
622
6.2.2 Air Conditioning of the Winding Room
624
6.2.3 Air Conditioning of Staple Fiber Plants
625
6.2.4 Climatization of Other Rooms
625
6.2.5 Dust Content of Conditioned Air
625
6.2.6 Air Conditioning State Plotted on ix-Diagram
626
6.2.7 Air Conditioning Plants
627
6.3 Heating Systems and Heat Transfer Media
629
6.3.1 Heating Plants
630
6.4 Protective Gas
633
6.5 Compressed Air
634
6.6 Cleaning of Polymer-Soiled Parts
635
6.6.1 Burning-Out Ovens
636
6.6.2 Molten Salt Bath Ovens
636
6.6.3 Aluminum Oxide Fluidized Bed Process
637
6.6.4 Hydrolytic (Pre-) Cleaning
637
6.6.5 Solvent Cleaning
638
6.6.6 Vacuum Pyrolysis
640
6.6.7 Final Cleaning and Comments
641
6.6.8 Cleaning Plants
641
6.7 Spin Finishes and Spin Finish Systems
642
6.7.1 Spin Finish
643
6.7.2 Frictional Behavior
643
6.7.3 Filament Cohesion
644
6.7.4 Antistatic
645
6.7.5 Emulsifiers
645
6.7.6 Spin Finish Application in Practice
645
6.7.7 Spin Finish Preparation
646
6.7.8 Uniformity of Spin Finish Application
646
6.8 Delustering and Spin Dyeing
648
6.8.1 Delustering
648
6.8.2 Dyestuffs for Spin Dyeing
650
6.8.3 Addition of Pigments/Dyestuffs
650
6.8.4 Additives
652
6.9 Testing of Spinning Pumps
652
6.10 Testing of Spinnerets
654
6.11 Yarn Containers (Spinning Tubes, etc.)
655
6.12 Maintenance
658
References
660
7 Auxiliary Devices, Calculations, and Construction
664
7.1 Control Drives
664
7.1.1 Mechanically Adjustable and Control Drives
664
7.1.2 Control Motors
664
7.1.3 Current Converters and Inverters
668
7.2 Yarn Guides,Spin Finish Applicators, and Yarn Sensors
672
7.3 Yarn and Tow Cutters
678
7.4 Air Jets
680
7.4.1 Yarn Aspirator Jets
680
7.4.2 Intermingling Jets (Tangling Jets)
682
7.5 Rotating Cylinders (Godets, Yarn Bobbins, etc.)
684
7.6 Inclined Rolls
685
7.7 Melt and Solution Viscosity
686
7.7.1 Melt Viscosity
686
7.7.2 Solution Viscosity
687
7.7.3 Molecular Weight, Polymerization Degree, etc.
688
7.8 Uster Uniformity Testing
691
7.9 Temperature Measurements, Melt Pressure Measurements
698
7.9.1 Temperature Measurement
698
7.9.2 Melt and Solution Pressure Measurement
701
7.9.3 Moisture Measurement
702
7.10 Fluid Mechanics
703
7.10.1 Air Flows for Re = 0.1...500
704
7.10.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
705
7.10.3 Heat Transfer from Yarn to Air
708
7.11 Construction Materials
709
7.12 High Temperature Threads
711
References
712
8 Waste Processing and Recovery (Recycling)
715
8.1 Overview
715
8.2 Chemical Processing of PA 6 Waste
716
8.2.1 Recovery of Caprolactam from PA 6 by Thermal Decomposition
716
8.2.2 PA 6 Recovery through Depolymerization-Filtration-Re-Polymerization
717
8.2.3 Recovery through Reprecipitation of PA 6
717
8.2.4 Lactam Recovery across the Entire Production Process
717
8.3 Chemical Processing of PA66 Waste
719
8.4 Depolymerization of Polyester
720
8.4.1 Conversion of Polyester to TPA or DMT
720
8.4.2 DMT Recovery via Glycolysis of PET
721
8.4.3 Recovery of DMT via Polyester Methanolysis
721
8.4.4 Gaseous Byproducts in PET Production
721
8.5 Mechanical Waste Processing
721
8.5.1 Polyester Bottle Granulate
722
8.5.2 Polymer Blocks (Solid Waste and PET Bottles)
722
8.5.3 Compaction of Filament Waste
722
8.5.4 Yarn to Staple Processing
723
8.6 Direct Extruder Processing of Yarn and Film Waste
725
8.7 Recovery and Cleaning of Gases and Fluids
727
References
731
9 Testing and Influencing the Properties of Man-Made Fibers
734
9.1 Introduction to Testing
734
9.1.1 Aims and Tasks
734
9.1.2 Fundamental Principles of Textile Testing
735
9.1.3 Quality Systems
738
9.2 Terminology and Morphology
738
9.2.1 Man-Made Fiber Terminology
738
9.2.2 Morphology of Man-Made Fibers
740
9.2.3 Application and Fiber Properties
740
9.3 Physical and Textile Properties
743
9.3.1 Fiber Structure and Fiber Properties
743
9.3.2 External Form and Constitution of Fibers
754
9.3.3 Mechanical Properties
769
9.3.4 Shrinkage and Shrinkage Force
777
9.3.5 Uniformity of Yarns and Fibers
784
9.4 Fiber and End-Use Properties
798
9.4.1 Cause and Effect Chain Between Fiber and Endproduct
798
9.5 Methods of Fiber Identification
811
9.5.1 Diagnostic Dyeing Tests
817
9.5.2 Microphotographs of Fibers
817
9.5.3 Solubility
817
9.5.4 Type Reactions
817
9.5.5 Embedding the Fiber in Specific Reagents
817
9.5.6 Thermal Tests
822
9.5.7 Infrared Spectral Analysis
822
Literature and Further Reading
830
10 Conversion Factors and Other Tables
834
10.1 Decimal Definitions and SI Units
835
10.2 Dimensional Conversion Factors
836
10.3 Molecular Weights of Raw Materials
839
10.4 Definition of Yarn Types According to Spinning and Drawing Speed
840
10.5 Abbreviations for Fibers, Polymers, Pre-and Intermediate Products
841
10.6 Formulas for Spinning??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
842
10.7 Statistics
843
10.8 Pre-Products????????????????????????????????????????????????
844
References
852
11 Fiber Tables
854
Index
888
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