Additive Manufacturing

Foreword

About the Authors

Acknowledgements

Contents

1 Basics, Definitions, and Application Levels

1.1 Systematics of Manufacturing Technologies

1.2 Systematics of Layer Technology

1.2.1 Application of Layer Technology: Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

1.2.2 Characteristics of Additive Manufacturing

1.3 Hierarchical Structure of Additive Manufacturing Processes

1.3.1 Rapid Prototyping

1.3.2 Rapid Manufacturing

1.3.2.1 Rapid Manufacturing—Direct Manufacturing

1.3.2.2 Rapid Manufacturing—Rapid Tooling (Direct Tooling— Prototype Tooling)

1.3.3 Related Nonadditive Processes: Indirect or Secondary Rapid Prototyping Processes

1.3.4 Rapid Prototyping or Rapid Manufacturing?

1.3.5 Diversity of Terms

1.3.6 How Fast Is Rapid?

1.4 Integration of Additive Manufacturing in the Product Development Process

1.4.1 Additive Manufacturing and Product Development

1.4.2 Additive Manufacturing for Low-Volume and One-of-a-Kind Production

1.4.3 Additive Manufacturing for Individualized Production

1.5 Machines for Additive Manufacturing

2 Characteristics of the Additive Manufacturing Process

2.1 Basic Principles of the Additive Manufacturing Process

2.2 Generation of Layer Information

2.2.1 Description of the Geometry by a 3D Data Record

2.2.1.1 Data Flow and Interfaces

2.2.1.2 Modeling 3D Bodies in a Computer by Means of 3D CAD

2.2.1.3 Generating 3D Models from Measurements

2.2.2 Generation of Geometrical Layer Information on Single Layers

2.2.2.1 STL Format

2.2.2.2 CLI/SLC Format

2.2.2.3 PLY and VRML Formats

2.2.2.4 AMF Format

2.3 Physical Principles for Layer Generation

2.3.1 Solidification of Liquid Materials

2.3.1.1 Photopolymerization?Stereolithography (SL)

2.3.1.2 Basic Principles of Polymerization

2.3.2 Generation from the Solid Phase

2.3.2.1 Melting and Solidification of Powders and Granules: Laser Sintering (LS)

2.3.2.2 Cutting from Foils: Layer Laminate Manufacturing (LLM)

2.3.2.3 Melting and Solidification out of the Solid Phase: Fused Layer Modeling (FLM)

2.3.2.4 Conglutination of Granules and Binders: 3D Printing

2.3.3 Solidification from the Gas Phase

2.3.3.1 Aerosol Printing Process

2.3.3.2 Laser Chemical Vapor Deposition (LCVD)

2.3.4 Other Processes

2.3.4.1 Sonoluminescence

2.3.4.2 Electroviscosity

2.4 Elements for Generating the Physical Layer

2.4.1 Moving Elements

2.4.1.1 Plotter

2.4.1.2 Scanner

2.4.1.3 Simultaneous Robots (Delta Robots)

2.4.2 Generating and Contouring Elements

2.4.2.1 Laser

2.4.2.2 Nozzles

2.4.2.3 Extruder

2.4.2.4 Cutting Blade

2.4.2.5 Milling Cutter

2.4.3 Layer-Generating Element

2.5 Classification of Additive Manufacturing Processes

2.6 Summary Evaluation of the Theoretical Potentials of Rapid Prototyping Processes

2.6.1 Materials

2.6.2 Model Properties

2.6.3 Details

2.6.4 Accuracy

2.6.5 Surface Quality

2.6.6 Development Potential

2.6.7 Continuous 3D Model Generation

3 Machines for Rapid Prototyping, Direct Tooling, and Direct Manufacturing

3.1 Polymerization: Stereolithography (SL)

3.1.1 Machine-Specific Basis

3.1.1.1 Laser Stereolithography

3.1.1.2 Digital Light Processing

3.1.1.3 PolyJet and MultiJet Modeling and Paste Polymerization

3.1.2 Overview: Polymerization, Stereolithography

3.1.3 Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA), 3D Systems

3.1.4 STEREOS, EOS

3.1.5 Stereolithography, Fockele & Schwarze

3.1.6 Microstereolithography, microTEC

3.1.7 Solid Ground Curing, Cubital

3.1.8 Digital Light Processing, Envisiontec

3.1.9 Polymer Printing, Stratasys/Objet

3.1.10 Multijet Modeling (MJM), ProJet, 3D Systems

3.1.11 Digital Wax

3.1.12 Film Transfer Imaging, 3D Systems

3.1.13 Other Polymerization Processes

3.1.13.1 Paste Polymerization, OptoForm

3.2 Sintering/Selective Sintering: Melting in the Powder Bed

3.2.1 Machine-Specific Basic Principles

3.2.2 Overview: Sintering and Melting

3.2.3 Selective Laser Sintering, 3D Systems/DTM

3.2.4 Laser Sintering, EOS

3.2.5 Laser Melting, Realizer GmbH

3.2.6 Laser Sintering, SLM Solutions

3.2.7 Laser Melting, Renishaw Ltd.

3.2.8 Laser Cusing, Concept Laser

3.2.9 Direct Laser Forming, TRUMPF

3.2.10 Electron Beam Melting

3.2.11 Selective Mask Sintering (SMS), Sintermask

3.2.12 Laser Sintering, Phenix

3.3 Coating: Melting with the Powder Nozzle

3.3.1 Process Principle

3.3.1.1 Concepts of Powder Nozzles

3.3.1.2 Process Monitoring and Control

3.3.2 Laser-Engineered Net Shaping (LENS), Optomec

3.3.3 Direct Metal Deposition (DMD), DM3D Technology (TRUMPF)

3.4 Layer Laminate Manufacturing (LLM)

3.4.1 Overview of Layer Laminate Manufacturing

3.4.2 Machine-Specific Basics

3.4.3 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM), Cubic Technologies

3.4.4 Rapid Prototyping Systems (RPS), Kinergy

3.4.5 Selective Adhesive and Hot Press Process (SAHP), Kira

3.4.6 Layer Milling Process (LMP), Zimmermann

3.4.7 Stratoconception, rp2i

3.4.8 Paper 3D Printing, MCor

3.4.9 Plastic Sheet Lamination, Solido

3.4.10 Other Layer Laminate Methods

3.4.10.1 Parts of Metal Foils: Laminated Metal Prototyping

3.5 Extrusion: Fused Layer Modeling (FLM)

3.5.1 Overview of Extrusion Processes

3.5.2 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Stratasys

3.5.3 Wax Printers, Solidscape

3.5.4 Multijet Modeling (MJM), ThermoJet, 3D Systems

3.6 Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)

3.6.1 Overview: 3D Printing

3.6.2 3D Printer, 3D Systems, and Z Corporation

3.6.3 Metal and Molding Sand Printer, ExOne

3.6.3.1 Metal Line: Direct Metal Printer

3.6.3.2 Molding Sand Line: Direct Core and Mold-Making Machine

3.6.4 Direct Shell Production Casting (DSPC), Soligen

3.6.5 3D Printing System, Voxeljet

3.6.6 Maskless Mesoscale Material Deposition (M3D), Optomec

3.7 Hybrid Processes

3.7.1 Controlled Metal Buildup (CMB)

3.7.2 Laminating and Ultrasonic Welding: Ultrasonic Consolidation, Solidica

3.8 Summary Evaluation of Rapid Prototyping Processes

3.8.1 Characteristic Properties of AM Processes Compared to Conventional Processes

3.8.2 Accuracy

3.8.3 Surfaces

3.8.4 Benchmark Tests and User Parts

3.9 Planning Targets

3.10 Follow-up Processes

3.10.1 Target Material: Plastics

3.10.2 Target Material: Metal

4 Rapid Prototyping

4.1 Classification and Definition

4.1.1 Properties of Prototypes

4.1.2 Characteristics of Rapid Prototyping

4.2 Strategic Aspects for the Use of Prototypes

4.2.1 Product Development Steps

4.2.2 Time to Market

4.2.3 Front Loading

4.2.4 Digital Product Model

4.2.5 The Limits of Physical Modeling

4.2.6 Communication and Motivation

4.3 Operational Aspects in the Use of Prototypes

4.3.1 Rapid Prototyping as a Tool for Fast Product Development

4.3.1.1 Models

4.3.1.2 Model Classes

4.3.1.3 Model Classes and Additive Processes

4.3.1.4 Assignment of Model Classes and Model Properties to the Families of Additive Production Processes

4.3.2 Applications of Rapid Prototyping in Industrial Product Development

4.3.2.1 Example: Housing of a Pump

4.3.2.2 Example: Office Lamp

4.3.2.3 Example: Recessed Lighting Socket

4.3.2.4 Example: Model Digger Arm

4.3.2.5 Example: LCD Projector

4.3.2.6 Example: Capillary Bottom for Flower Pots

4.3.2.7 Example: Casing for a Coffeemaker

4.3.2.8 Example: Intake Manifold of a Four-Cylinder Engine

4.3.2.9 Example: Cocktail Glass

4.3.2.10 Example: Mirror Triangle

4.3.2.11 Example: Convertible Top

4.3.3 Rapid Prototyping Models for the Visualization of 3D Data

4.3.4 Rapid Prototyping in Medicine

4.3.4.1 Characteristics of Medical Models

4.3.4.2 Anatomic Facsimile Models

4.3.4.3 Example: Anatomic Facsimiles for a Reconstructive Osteotomy

4.3.5 Rapid Prototyping in Art, Archaeology, and Architecture

4.3.5.1 Model Making in Art and Design, General

4.3.5.2 Example of Art: Computer Sculpture, Georg Glückman

4.3.5.3 Example of Design: Bottle Opener

4.3.5.4 Applied Art: Statuary and Sculpture

4.3.5.5 Example of Archaeology: Bust of Queen Teje

4.3.5.6 Model Building in Architecture, General

4.3.5.7 Example of Architecture: German Pavilion at Expo ’92

4.3.5.8 Example of Architecture: Ground Zero

4.3.5.9 Example of Architectural Monuments: Documentation of Buildings Relevant to Architectural History

4.3.6 Rapid Prototyping for the Evaluation of Calculation Methods

4.3.6.1 Photoelastic and Thermoelastic Stress Analysis

4.3.6.2 Example: Photoelastic Stress Analysis for a Cam Rod in the Engine of a Truck

4.3.6.3 Example: Thermoelastic Stress Analysis for Verifying the Stability of a Car Wheel Rim

4.4 Outlook

5 Rapid Tooling

5.1 Classification and Definition of Terms

5.1.1 Direct and Indirect Methods

5.2 Properties of Additive Manufactured Tools

5.2.1 Strategic Aspects for the Use of Additive Manufactured Tools

5.2.1.1 Speed

5.2.1.2 Implementation of New Technical Concepts

5.2.2 Design Properties of Additive Manufactured Tools

5.2.2.1 Prototype Tools

5.2.2.2 Supply of Data

5.3 Indirect Rapid Tooling Processes: Molding Processes and Follow-up Processes

5.3.1 Suitability of AM Processes for the Manufacture of Master Patterns for Subsequent Processes

5.3.2 Indirect Methods for the Manufacture of Tools for Plastic Components

5.3.2.1 Casting in Soft Tools or Molds

5.3.2.2 Casting into Hard Tools

5.3.2.3 Other Molding Techniques for Hard Tools

5.3.3 Indirect Methods for the Manufacture of Metal Components

5.3.3.1 Investment Casting with AM Process Steps

5.3.3.2 Tools by Investment Casting of Rapid Prototyping Master Models

5.4 Direct Rapid Tooling Processes

5.4.1 Prototype Tooling: Tools Based on Plastic Rapid Prototyping Models and Methods

5.4.1.1 ACES Injection Molding

5.4.1.2 Deep Drawing or Thermoforming

5.4.1.3 Casting of Rapid Prototyping Models

5.4.1.4 Manufacture of Cores and Molds for Metal Casting

5.4.2 Metal Tools Based on Multilevel AM Processes

5.4.2.1 Selective Laser Sintering of Metals: IMLS by 3D Systems

5.4.2.2 Paste Polymerization: OptoForm

5.4.2.3 3D Printing of Metals: ExOne

5.4.3 Direct Tooling: Tools Based on Metal Rapid Prototype Processes

5.4.3.1 Multicomponent Metal Powder Laser Sintering

5.4.3.2 Single-Component Metal Powder Methods: Sintering and Additive Manufacturing

5.4.3.3 Laser Generating with Powder and Wire

5.4.3.4 Layer Laminate Process, Metal Blade Tools, Laminated Metal Tooling

5.5 Future Prospects

6 Direct Manufacturing: Rapid Manufacturing

6.1 Classification and Definition of Terms

6.1.1 Terms

6.1.2 From Rapid Prototyping to Rapid Manufacturing

6.1.3 Workflow for Direct Manufacturing

6.1.4 Requirements for Direct Manufacturing

6.2 Potential for Additive Manufacturing of End Products

6.2.1 Increased Design Freedom

6.2.1.1 Advanced Design and Structural Opportunities

6.2.1.2 Functional Integration

6.2.1.3 Novel Design Elements

6.2.2 Production of Traditionally Not Producible Products

6.2.3 Variation of Mass Products

6.2.4 Personalization of Mass Products

6.2.4.1 Passive Personalization: Manufacturer Personalization

6.2.4.2 Active Personalization: Customer Personalization

6.2.5 Realization of New Materials

6.2.6 Realization of New Manufacturing Strategies

6.2.7 Design of New Labor and Living Alternatives

6.3 Requirements on Additive Manufacturing for Production

6.3.1 Requirements on Additive Manufacturing of a Part

6.3.1.1 Process

6.3.1.2 Materials

6.3.1.3 Organization

6.3.1.4 Design

6.3.1.5 Quality Assurance

6.3.1.6 Logistics

6.3.2 Requirements for Additive Mass Production with Current Methods

6.3.2.1 Process

6.3.2.2 Materials

6.3.2.3 Organization

6.3.2.4 Design

6.3.2.5 Quality Assurance

6.3.2.6 Logistics

6.3.3 Future Efforts in Additive Series Production

6.3.3.1 Process

6.3.3.2 Materials

6.3.3.3 Organization

6.3.3.4 Design

6.3.3.5 Quality Assurance

6.3.3.6 Logistics

6.4 Implementation of Rapid Manufacturing

6.4.1 Additive Manufacturing Machines as Elements of a Process Chain

6.4.2 Additive Machines for Complete Production of Products

6.4.2.1 Industrial Complete Production

6.4.2.2 Individual Complete Production (Personal Fabrication)

6.5 Application Fields

6.5.1 Application Fields for Materials

6.5.1.1 Metallic Materials and Alloys

6.5.1.2 High-Performance Ceramics

6.5.1.3 Plastics

6.5.1.4 New Materials

6.5.2 Application Fields by Industry

6.5.2.1 Tooling

6.5.2.2 Casting

6.5.2.3 Medical Equipment and Aids, Medical Technology

6.5.2.4 Design and Art

6.6 Summary

7 Safety and Environmental Protection

7.1 Labor Agreements for the Operation and Production of Additive Manufacturing Machines and the Handling of the Corresponding Material

7.2 Annotations to Materials for Additive Manufacturing

7.3 Annotations for Using Additive Manufactured Components

8 Economic Aspects

8.1 Strategic Aspects

8.1.1 Strategic Aspects of the Use of AM Methods in Product Development

8.1.1.1 Qualitative Approaches

8.1.1.2 Quantitative Approaches

8.2 Operative Aspects

8.2.1 Establishing the Optimal Additive Manufacturing Process

8.2.2 Establishing the Costs of Additive Manufacturing Processes

8.2.2.1 Variable Costs

8.2.2.2 Fixed Costs

8.2.3 Characteristics of Additive Manufacturing and Its Impacts on Economy

8.2.3.1 Construction Time

8.2.3.2 Lot Sizes and Use of Construction Space

8.2.3.3 Utilization

8.2.3.4 Material Consumption

8.2.3.5 Process Safety

8.2.3.6 Construction Speed

8.2.3.7 Technical Progress and Model Refinement

8.2.3.8 Service

8.3 Make or Buy?

9 Future Rapid Prototyping Processes

9.1 Microcomponents

9.1.1 Microcomponents Made of Metal and Ceramic

9.1.2 Microcomponents Made of Metal and Ceramics by Laser Melting

9.1.2.1 Melting Process in Selective Laser Melting

9.1.2.2 Microstructures of Metal Powder

9.1.2.3 Microstructures of Ceramic Powder

9.2 Contour Crafting

9.3 D-Shape Process

9.4 Selective Inhibition of Sintering (SIS)

9.4.1 The SIS-Polymer Process

9.4.2 The SIS-Metal Process

9.5 Free Molding

9.6 Freeformer

Appendix

Glossary

Bibliography

Index

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