Materials Science of Polymers for Engineers

Preface to the First Edition

Preface to the Third Edition

1 Introduction

1.1 The 6 P’s

1.2 General Information

1.3 Identification of Polymers

1.4 Sustainability – The 6th P

References

2 Historical Background

2.1 From Natural to Synthetic Rubber

2.2 Cellulose and the $10,000 Idea

2.3 Galalith – The Milk Stone

2.4 Leo Baekeland and the Plastics Industry

2.5 Herman Mark and the American Polymer Education

2.6 Wallace Hume Carothers and Synthetic Polymers

2.7 Polyethylene – A Product of Brain and Brawn

2.8 The Super Fiber and the Woman Who Invented It

2.9 One Last Word – Plastics

References

3 Structure of Polymers

3.1 Macromolecular Structure of Polymers

3.2 Molecular Bonds and Inter-Molecular Attraction

3.3 Molecular Weight

3.4 Conformation and Configuration of Polymer Molecules

3.5 Arrangement of Polymer Molecules

3.5.1 Thermoplastic Polymers

3.5.2 Amorphous Thermoplastics

3.5.3 Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastics

3.5.4 Thermosets and Cross-Linked Elastomers

3.6 Copolymers and Polymer Blends

3.7 Polymer Additives

3.7.1 Flame Retardants

3.7.2 Stabilizers

3.7.3 Antistatic Agents

3.7.4 Fillers

3.7.5 Blowing Agents

References

4 Thermal Properties of Polymers

4.1 Material Properties

4.1.1 Thermal Conductivity

4.1.2 Specific Heat

4.1.3 Density

4.1.4 Thermal Diffusivity

4.1.5 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

4.1.6 Thermal Penetration

4.1.7 Glass Transition Temperature

4.1.8 Melting Temperature

4.2 Measuring Thermal Data

4.2.1 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

4.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC)

4.2.3 Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)

4.2.4 Thermogravimetry (TGA)

4.2.5 Density Measurements

References

5 Rheology of Polymer Melts

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Continuum Mechanics

5.1.2 The Generalized Newtonian Fluid

5.1.3 Normal Stresses in Shear Flow

5.1.4 Deborah Number

5.2 Viscous Flow Models

5.2.1 The Power Law Model

5.2.2 The Bird-Carreau-Yasuda Model

5.2.3 The Bingham Fluid

5.2.4 Elongational Viscosity

5.2.5 Rheology of Curing Thermosets

5.2.6 Suspension Rheology

5.3 Simplified Flow Models Common in Polymer Processing

5.3.1 Simple Shear Flow

5.3.2 Pressure Flow Through a Slit

5.3.3 Pressure Flow through a Tube – Hagen-Poiseuille Flow

5.3.4 Couette Flow

5.4 Viscoelastic Flow Models

5.4.1 Differential Viscoelastic Models

5.4.2 Integral Viscoelastic Models

5.5 Rheometry

5.5.1 The Melt Flow Indexer

5.5.2 The Capillary Viscometer

5.5.3 Computing Viscosity Using the Bagley and Weissenberg-Rabinowitsch Equations

5.5.4 Viscosity Approximation Using the Representative Viscosity Method

5.5.5 The Cone-Plate Rheometer

5.5.6 The Couette Rheometer

5.5.7 Extensional Rheometry

5.6 Surface Tension

References

6 Introduction to Processing

6.1 Extrusion

6.1.1 The Plasticating Extruder

6.1.1.1 The Solids Conveying Zone

6.1.1.2 The Melting Zone

6.1.1.3 The Metering Zone

6.1.2 Extrusion Dies

6.1.2.1 Sheeting Dies

6.1.2.2 Tubular Dies

6.2 Mixing Processes

6.2.1 Distributive Mixing

6.2.1.1 Effect of Orientation

6.2.2 Dispersive Mixing

6.2.2.1 Break-Up of Particulate Agglomerates

6.2.2.2 Break-Up of Fluid Droplets

6.2.3 Mixing Devices

6.2.3.1 Static Mixers

6.2.3.2 Banbury Mixer

6.2.3.3 Mixing in Single Screw Extruders

6.2.3.4 Co-Kneader

6.2.3.5 Twin Screw Extruders

6.2.4 Energy Consumption During Mixing

6.2.5 Mixing Quality and Efficiency

6.2.6 Plasticization

6.3 Injection Molding

6.3.1 The Injection Molding Cycle

6.3.2 The Injection Molding Machine

6.3.2.1 The Plasticating and Injection Unit

6.3.2.2 The Clamping Unit

6.3.2.3 The Mold Cavity

6.4 Special Injection Molding Processes

6.4.1 Multi-Component Injection Molding

6.4.2 Co-Injection Molding

6.4.3 Gas-Assisted Injection Molding (GAIM)

6.4.4 Injection-Compression Molding

6.4.5 Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)

6.4.6 Liquid Silicone Rubber Injection Molding

6.5 Secondary Shaping

6.5.1 Fiber Spinning

6.5.2 Film Production

6.5.2.1 Cast Film Extrusion

6.5.2.2 Film Blowing

6.5.3 Blow Molding

6.5.3.1 Extrusion Blow Molding

6.5.3.2 Injection Blow Molding

6.5.3.3 Thermoforming

6.6 Calendering

6.7 Coating

6.8 Compression Molding

6.9 Foaming

6.10 Rotational Molding

6.11 Computer Simulation in Polymer Processing

6.11.1 Mold Filling Simulation

6.11.2 Orientation Predictions

6.11.3 Shrinkage and Warpage Predictions

References

7 Anisotropy Development During Processing

7.1 Orientation in the Final Part

7.1.1 Processing Thermoplastic Polymers

7.1.2 Processing Thermoset Polymers

7.2 Predicting Orientation in the Final Part

7.2.1 Planar Orientation Distribution Function

7.2.2 Single Particle Motion

7.2.3 Jeffery’s Model

7.2.4 Folgar-Tucker Model

7.2.5 Tensor Representation of Fiber Orientation

7.2.5.1 Predicting Orientation in Complex Parts Using Computer Simulation

7.3 Fiber Damage

References

8 Solidification of Polymers

8.1 Solidification of Thermoplastics

8.1.1 Thermodynamics During Cooling

8.1.2 Morphological Structure

8.1.3 Crystallization

8.1.4 Heat Transfer During Solidification

8.2 Solidification of Thermosets

8.2.1 Curing Reaction

8.2.2 Cure Kinetics

8.2.3 Heat Transfer During Cure

8.3 Residual Stresses and Warpage of Polymeric Parts

8.3.1 Residual Stress Models

8.3.1.1 Residual Stress Model Without Phase Change Effects

8.3.1.2 Model to Predict Residual Stresses with Phase Change Effects

8.3.2 Other Simple Models to Predict Residual Stresses and Warpage

8.3.2.1 Uneven Mold Temperature

8.3.2.2 Residual Stress in a Thin Thermoset Part

8.3.2.3 Anisotropy Induced Curvature Change

8.3.3 Predicting Warpage in Actual Parts

References

9 Mechanical Behavior of Polymers

9.1 Basic Concepts of Stress and Strain

9.1.1 Plane Stress

9.1.2 Plane Strain

9.2 Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymers

9.2.1 Stress Relaxation Test

9.2.2 Time-Temperature Superposition (WLF-Equation)

9.2.3 The Boltzmann Superposition Principle

9.3 Applying Linear Viscoelasticity to Describe the Behavior of Polymers

9.3.1 The Maxwell Model

9.3.2 Kelvin Model

9.3.3 Jeffrey Model

9.3.4 Standard Linear Solid Model

9.3.5 The Generalized Maxwell Model

9.4 The Short-Term Tensile Test

9.4.1 Rubber Elasticity

9.4.2 The Tensile Test and Thermoplastic Polymers

9.5 Creep Test

9.5.1 Isochronous and Isometric Creep Plots

9.6 Dynamic Mechanical Tests

9.6.1 Torsion Pendulum

9.6.2 Sinusoidal Oscillatory Test

9.7 Effects of Structure and Composition on Mechanical Properties

9.7.1 Amorphous Thermoplastics

9.7.2 Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastics

9.7.3 Oriented Thermoplastics

9.7.4 Crosslinked Polymers

9.8 Mechanical Behavior of Filled and Reinforced Polymers

9.8.1 Anisotropic Strain-Stress Relation

9.8.2 Aligned Fiber Reinforced Composite Laminates

9.8.3 Transformation of Fiber Reinforced Composite Laminate Properties

9.8.4 Reinforced Composite Laminates with a Fiber Orientation Distribution Function

9.9 Strength Stability Under Heat

References

10 Failure and Damage of Polymers

10.1 Fracture Mechanics

10.1.1 Fracture Predictions Based on the Stress Intensity Factor

10.1.2 Fracture Predictions Based on an Energy Balance

10.1.3 Linear Viscoelastic Fracture Predictions Based on J-Integrals

10.2 Short-Term Tensile Strength

10.2.1 Brittle Failure

10.2.2 Ductile Failure

10.2.3 Failure of Highly Filled Systems or Composites

10.3 Impact Strength

10.3.1 Impact Test Methods

10.3.2 Fracture Mechanics Analysis of Impact Failure

10.4 Creep Rupture

10.4.1 Creep Rupture Tests

10.4.2 Fracture Mechanics Analysis of Creep Rupture

10.5 Fatigue

10.5.1 Fatigue Test Methods

10.5.2 Fracture Mechanics Analysis of Fatigue Failure

10.6 Friction and Wear

10.7 Stability of Polymer Structures

10.8 Environmental Effects on Polymer Failure

10.8.1 Weathering

10.8.2 Chemical Degradation

10.8.3 Thermal Degradation of Polymers

References

11 Electrical Properties of Polymers

11.1 Dielectric Behavior

11.1.1 Dielectric Coefficient

11.1.2 Mechanisms of Dielectrical Polarization

11.1.3 Dielectric Dissipation Factor

11.1.4 Implications of Electrical and Thermal Loss in a Dielectric

11.2 Electric Conductivity

11.2.1 Electric Resistance

11.2.2 Physical Causes of Volume Conductivity

11.3 Application Problems

11.3.1 Electric Breakdown

11.3.2 Electrostatic Charge

11.3.3 Electrets

11.3.4 Electromagnetic Interference Shielding (EMI Shielding)

11.4 Magnetic Properties

11.4.1 Magnetizability

11.4.2 Magnetic Resonance

References

12 Optical Properties of Polymers

12.1 Index of Refraction

12.2 Photoelasticity and Birefringence

12.3 Transparency, Reflection, Absorption, and Transmittance

12.4 Gloss

12.5 Color

12.6 Infrared Spectroscopy

12.7 Infrared Pyrometry

12.8 Heating with Infrared Radiation

References

13 Permeability Properties of Polymers

13.1 Sorption

13.2 Diffusion and Permeation

13.3 Measuring S, D, and P

13.4 Corrosion of Polymers and Cracking [5]

13.5 Diffusion of Polymer Molecules and Self-diffusion

References

14 Acoustic Properties of Polymers

14.1 Speed of Sound

14.2 Sound Reflection

14.3 Sound Absorption

References

Appendix

Appendix I

Appendix II

Appendix III

Appendix IV – Balance Equations

Continuity Equation

Energy Equation for a Newtonian Fluid

Momentum Balance

Momentum Equation in Terms of t

Navier-Stokes Equation

Index